Falconry - Takagari

Japanese: 鷹狩 - たかがり

It is a form of hunting in which people keep falcons and release them into the mountains to catch wild birds. It is also called takano or hoyou.

[Yutaka Yamanaka]

history

Japan

It is said that hawks were first seen in the "Nihon Shoki" in September of the 43rd year of Emperor Nintoku's reign (359), when they were introduced from Baekje. However, hawks originally inhabited our country, and there is also a theory that they were first kept as pets during the reign of Emperor Ojin. Under the ritsuryo system, a Chief Falconer was placed under the Ministry of War, and was responsible for "training hawks and other dogs." It was later transferred to the Ministry of Civil Affairs and renamed the Falconer. Due to the influence of Buddhist thought, many prohibitions were issued, but it became very popular during the Nara and Heian periods, and Emperor Saga, who had a deep interest in ceremonies and rituals, wrote the "New Revised Falcon Sutra," making it clear that falcons were a form of entertainment for the monarch. Emperors of the Heian period, such as Emperors Ninmyo, Yozei, Koko, Uda, and Daigo, were fond of hunting and designated Kitano, Katano, and Utano as their imperial hunting grounds. As the Fujinouraba chapter of the Tale of Genji states, "The falconry of the Kurodo-dokoro is sent to hunt in Kitano," the position of falconer was later established under the Kurodo-dokoro. In addition, during the reign of Emperor Koko, officials or courtiers of the Konoe-fu were sent out to various provinces with hawks and dogs to hunt wild birds. These were called hunting messengers.

During the New Year's banquet at the Minister's House, Takakai and Inukai enter the garden and participate in the banquet. Takakai's costume for this day is a brocade hat, a purple hunting costume, white hakama, a shin guard, light sandals, red trousers, and a sword with a bird's neck. He holds a hawk in his left hand and a branch with a pheasant on it in his right hand. (The Anzai Zuihitsu (Essays on Anzai Zuihitsu) Volume 3 states that Takakai and Inukai's costumes are in the Daidaibankaihen (Minister's Banquet) of Volume 2 of the Gokeshidai (Essays on Anzai Zuihitsu), but they do not appear in the extant Gokeshidai (Kojitsu Soshohon). Besides the Imperial Court, princes and vassals also practiced falconry. It can be seen in the poems of Otomo no Yakamochi in the "Manyoshu" (Collection of Myoshu) and in the "Sandai Jitsuroku" (Chronicles of Three Generations), there is an example of Minamoto no Toru's Udano in Yamato Province. In the "Konjaku Monogatari" (Tales of Times Now Past and Present), there is an interesting story about how Fujiwara no Tadabumi, the Minister of Civil Affairs living in Uji, gave a falcon to Emperor Daigo's son, Prince Shigeakira, the Minister of Ceremonies, for falconry, but the prince did not like the falcon and it returned to its master Tadabumi, who loved it. It is said that falconry was popular during the samurai period as well, as can be seen in the "Azuma Kagami" (The Mirror of the Azuma Kagami), but there are also frequent bans on falconry. It is said that the secret teachings of the falconry school of Minamoto no Masayori existed in the late Heian period (Jinjin, Takakai Sankotoba, "Kokin Yorango" (Personnel Affairs), Takakai Sankotoba).

After the Kamakura period, the tradition was passed down orally by the four families of Saionji, Jimyoin, Nijo, and Kujo, as well as the Ogasawara family of Owari. Tokugawa Ieyasu also had a strong preference for falconry, and there are many examples of the practice taking place around Edo. In the New Year of 1612, Ieyasu presented the cranes he had caught by releasing his falcon to the Imperial Palace. However, during the reign of the fifth shogun, Tsunayoshi, the "Edict of Compassion for Living Things" was issued, which meant that the practice was temporarily suspended. However, during the reign of Yoshimune, it was institutionalized and revived. The places where feudal lords would hunt falconry were called takaba, and falconry attire was institutionalized, leading to a major revival. There was also a position in the Edo shogunate called a falconer, who was responsible for raising and managing falcons. Falconry became an annual event for the shogunate and continued until the end of the Edo period, but after the Meiji Restoration, it declined, and now only falconers and falconers exist in the Imperial Household Agency. Falconers had authority because they were entrusted with the shogun's falcons, and were feared by the common people. In addition, there was a profession closely related to falconers called "torimi," who inspected the falconry grounds and inspected the condition of wild birds.

[Yutaka Yamanaka]

world

Falconry emerged in the Neolithic period, when humans became adept at raising livestock. There are two theories about its origin: the multi-origin theory, and that it originated in the Middle East and then spread there. The latter theory is more likely.

Falconry is best suited to flat ground due to its visibility and the use of horses, so it developed in Asia from the 1000s BC on the vast plains of Mongolia, eastern Siberia, China, Turkestan, and India, and the techniques were improved through the efforts of aristocrats and professional falconers. Persian (Iranian) kings learned from Turkestan falconers and incorporated them into court ceremonies, and even today Iran still passes on falconry as a ritual in addition to hunting. Genghis Khan made falconry the highest subject for military personnel. Marco Polo wrote that "The King of Sheba had an army of 10,000 falconers under his command, and at that time the prey from their hunting provided almost all the food for the entire nation." In China, it was learned by residents of northeastern Manchuria and spread among the Han people, flourishing during the Han and Tang dynasties. During the Yuan Dynasty, large-scale falconry was held as a national sport, and it is said that Emperor Tianzuo of the Liao Dynasty destroyed his country because he indulged in falconry. Korea also inherited this tradition from the Sushen Dynasty in the northeast around the time of the birth of Christ, and it became popular mainly in Goguryeo. The techniques of falconry that developed in this region had a great influence on China and were also introduced to Japan. Korea presented hawks as tribute to successive Chinese dynasties, and diplomatic relations were developed through hawks.

Meanwhile, falconry that spread southwestward was welcomed by ancient civilizations such as India, Iran, and Egypt, and became the Greek and Roman falconry, which swept through Medieval European countries and flourished under the Saxon dynasty of England. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, clergy spread falconry to Europe along with the spread of Christianity. The lords of the Visigothic Kingdom tried to take falconry away from the clergy and make it their own privilege, and in 517 they banned hunting. The Frankish king Charlemagne created an organization of falconers, and falconry became popular among rulers, nobles, and knights. Falconry reached its peak in the 13th century, when the head falconer of the Holy Roman Empire was one of the highest-ranking positions in the royal court, and Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty left behind a book that was a comprehensive study of falconry. During the reign of Charles VIII of France (15th century), a good falcon was equivalent to a well-groomed horse. The development of gunpowder around this time gradually brought about the demise of falconry. Today, falconry remains only as a hobby, but it is quite popular in Siberia, China, the Middle East, as well as in the UK and the USA, where there are 51 falconry associations.

[Kunihiko Shirai]

Hawking

The main types of hawks used are the Northern Goshawk, Mountain Hawk-Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, and Sparrowhawk. When the Northern Goshawk and Peregrine Falcon migrate in the autumn, the former are caught in a hawk-catching net (katamusou-ami) using pigeons as bait, and the latter in a hago (a hunting method using a hago), while the Mountain Hawk-Eagle captures and raises chicks. Once captured, the sharp parts of the hawk's claws and beak are cut off with a blade, leg leather is attached to the hawk's legs, a harness is tied, and training begins. Hawk training is carried out over a long period of time with the utmost care; the hawks are kept in a hawk room, kept hungry and accustomed to people, and then accustomed to the outside world including lights and cars, before being gradually introduced to prey. The goshawk's prey is extremely varied, including pheasants, hares, geese, ducks, herons, and moorhens. The peregrine falcon's main prey is geese and pheasants due to its powerful flying ability, while the mountain hawk's main prey is hares. When a goshawk or mountain hawk hunts, the falcon will fly upwind when the prey takes off or starts to run, then grab the prey and land together. In the case of a peregrine falcon, it will fly up high in the air at a considerable distance from where the prey is, guide it with a call and approach the prey, then catch it from downwind as it takes off, aiming for the prey and diving headfirst from high in the air, knocking it down. Sometimes it will be released with a long rope attached to its leg to prevent it from chasing too far. The prey is found and chased by a seko or dog (hawk dog). When it catches its prey, it lifts it up (holds it between its legs, removes its heart and gives it to the hawk), but if it wants to keep the prey intact, it will give it a piece of meat from a feeding box.

[Kunihiko Shirai]

[Reference] | Hunting

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

鷹を飼い、山野に放ち野鳥をとる遊猟である。鷹野(たかの)、放鷹(ほうよう)ともいう。

［山中　裕］

歴史

日本

初見は『日本書紀』仁徳(にんとく)天皇の43年（359）9月、百済(くだら)から伝えられたといわれている。しかし、鷹は元来、わが国に生息したものであり、その飼養の最初は応神(おうじん)天皇のときという説もある。令(りょう)制では兵部省のもとに主鷹司(しゅようし)が置かれ、「鷹犬調習せむ事」とあり、のち民部省に移し放鷹司と改称された。仏教思想の影響もあって、禁止令も多く出たが、奈良・平安時代にたいへん盛んになり、嵯峨(さが)天皇は儀式典礼に関心が深かったためもあって、『新修鷹経(ようきょう)』を撰(せん)し、君主の娯楽であることを明確にした。仁明(にんみょう)、陽成(ようぜい)、光孝(こうこう)、宇多(うだ)、醍醐(だいご)天皇等々、平安時代の天皇はこれを好み、北野、交野(かたの)、宇多野を天皇の狩場と定めた。『源氏物語』藤裏葉(ふじのうらば)巻にも「蔵人所(くろうどどころ)の鷹かひの北野に狩つかうまつれる」とあるように、のちには蔵人所のもとに鷹飼(たかがい)の職制を定められている。また光孝天皇のときには近衛府(このえふ)の官人または蔵人に鷹・犬をつけて諸国に下し、野鳥をとらせている。これを狩の使(つかい)という。

　正月の大臣家大饗(たいきょう)の儀には、犬飼とともに庭中に参り、酒宴にあずかる。この日の鷹飼の装束は、錦帽子(にしきのぼうし)、紫纈狩衣(しぼりかりぎぬ)、白布袴(はかま)、壺脛巾(つぼはばき)、浅履(あさぐつ)、紅褂(くれないのうちぎ)、鳥頸太刀(とりがしのたち)を身につけ、左手に鷹を据(す)え、右手に雉(きじ)を付ける枝を執るという（『安斎随筆』巻3に、鷹飼・犬飼装束は『江家次第(ごうけしだい)』巻2大臣大饗篇(へん)にありというが、現存の『江家次第』〈故実叢書本〉にはみえない）。朝廷のほか、親王や臣下も鷹飼を行っており、古くは『万葉集』の大伴家持(おおとものやかもち)の歌にもみえ、『三代実録』にも源融(とおる)の大和(やまと)国宇陀野(うだの)の例がある。また『今昔物語』には、宇治に住む民部卿(みんぶきょう)藤原忠文(ただぶみ)が醍醐天皇の皇子式部卿重明(しげあきら)親王に鷹狩の鷹を与えたが、親王にその鷹がなつかず、鷹を愛する主人忠文のもとへ帰ってしまった興味深い話がある。武家時代も盛んであったことは『吾妻鏡(あづまかがみ)』にみえるところであるが、鷹飼の禁令もしばしばみえている。鷹狩の流派は、平安時代末期に源政頼(まさより)の秘伝が存したという（『古今要覧稿』人事、鷹飼山詞）。

　鎌倉時代以後、西園寺(さいおんじ)、持明院(じみょういん)、二条、九条の4家をはじめ、尾張(おわり)の小笠原(おがさわら)家などが口伝を伝えた。また徳川家康は鷹狩を非常に好み、江戸周辺で鷹狩を行っている例が多くみられる。慶長(けいちょう)17年（1612）正月、家康は放鷹による鶴(つる)を内裏に献上した。しかし、5代将軍綱吉の時代には、「生類憐(しょうるいあわれ)みの令」によって一時停止となった。が、吉宗(よしむね)のときに制度化して復興した。大名の鷹狩する場所を鷹場(たかば)といい、鷹装束なども制度化して大きく復興した。また鷹匠(たかじょう)と称し鷹を飼養管理する江戸幕府の職掌もあった。鷹狩は幕府の年中行事となって幕末まで行われたが、明治維新後は衰え、現在は宮内庁に鷹師・鷹匠が存在するのみである。鷹匠は将軍の鷹をあずかったので権威をもち、庶民は恐れていた。また鷹匠と密接な関係の職掌として「鳥見(とりみ)」があり、鷹場を巡検して野鳥の状態を見分する者もあった。

［山中　裕］

世界

鷹狩は人類が家畜の飼育に習熟する新石器時代に発生したが、発祥には、多元説と、中近東で発生して伝播(でんぱ)したとする2説があるが、後者が有力である。

　鷹狩は視野と馬の利用から平坦(へいたん)地が適するため、アジアでは、モンゴル、シベリア東部、中国、トルキスタン、インドなどの広大な平野で紀元前1000年代から発達し、貴族や専門の鷹匠の努力で技術が高められた。ペルシア（イラン）の王たちはトルキスタンの鷹匠から学んで宮廷の儀式に取り入れたが、いまでもイランは実猟のほか儀式の鷹狩を伝えている。チンギス・ハンは鷹狩を軍人のための最高の教科とした。マルコ・ポーロは、「シバの王の配下に1万人の鷹匠からなる軍隊があり、当時その狩りの獲物で全国民の食糧をほとんどまかなった」と記している。中国では、東北（満州）の住民から習得して漢民族間に広まり、漢・唐の時代に盛大であったし、元は国技として大規模な鷹狩を行い、遼(りょう)の天祚(てんそ)帝は鷹狩にふけったため国を滅ぼしたといわれている。朝鮮も、紀元ごろ東北の粛慎(しゅくしん)からこれを継承し、高句麗(こうくり)を中心に流行した。この地域で発達した鷹狩の技術は、中国に大きな影響を与えるとともに日本にも伝えられた。朝鮮は中国歴代王朝へ朝貢品としてタカを贈り、タカを介して国交を盛んにした。

　一方、南西へ広まったものはインド、イラン、エジプトなどの古代文明に迎えられて、ギリシア、ローマの鷹狩になり、中世のヨーロッパ諸国を風靡(ふうび)し、イングランドのサクソン王朝で開花した。中世の初め聖職者たちは、キリスト教の布教とともにヨーロッパへ鷹狩を広めた。西ゴート王国の領主たちは聖職者から鷹狩を奪って自分たちの特権にしようとし、517年に聖職者の猟を禁じた。フランク国王カール大帝は鷹匠の組織をつくり、支配者や貴族や騎士の間に鷹狩が盛んになった。鷹狩の最盛期は13世紀で、神聖ローマ帝国の鷹匠頭は宮廷における最高位の一つに数えられたし、ホーエンシュタウフェン王家のフレデリック2世は鷹狩を集大成した著述を残した。フランスのシャルル8世（15世紀）時代、優れたハヤブサは毛並みのよい乗馬と同値であった。このころ火薬の発達により、鷹狩はしだいに終わりに近づいた。今日では鷹狩は趣味として残っているにすぎないが、シベリア、中国、中近東をはじめイギリスやアメリカではかなり流行しており、アメリカには51団体がある。

［白井邦彦］

放鷹

使役するタカの種類はオオタカ、クマタカ、ハヤブサ、ハイタカなどがおもなものである。オオタカやハヤブサは、秋季渡ってきたとき、前者はハトをおとりにして鷹捕網（片無双網）で、後者は黐擌(はご)（黐(もち)を用いる猟法）でとらえ、クマタカは雛(ひな)をとらえて育成する。捕獲したタカは、つめや嘴(くちばし)の鋭利な部分を刃物で切り、脚(あし)に足革をつけて大緒を結び訓練にかかる。タカの訓練は長期にわたって、細心の注意のもとに行われるもので、鷹部屋に飼い、空腹にして人に慣らし、ついで灯火・車などをはじめ外界に慣らしたのち、徐々に獲物にあてていく。オオタカの獲物はすこぶる多く、キジ、ノウサギ、ガン、カモ、サギ、バンなど、ハヤブサは飛翔(ひしょう)力が強大なためガン、キジを、クマタカはノウサギがおもな獲物である。オオタカやクマタカでの鷹狩は、獲物が飛び立ったり、走り出したときに、風下から羽合わせる（飛ばす）と、獲物につかみかかっていっしょに降下着陸する。ハヤブサの場合は、獲物のいるところからかなり離れた地点で、上げ鷹（空中高く飛ばす）を行い、呼び子で誘導しながら獲物に接近させ、獲物の飛び立ったところを風下からとらえさせるもので、獲物を目がけて高空から真っ逆さまに飛びかかって獲物をけ落とす。深追いを防止するため脚に長忍縄(おきなわ)をつけて放すこともある。獲物の発見や追い立ては勢子(せこ)やイヌ（お鷹犬）による。獲物をとらえると、丸上げ（獲物を羽交いにして心臓を取り出して鷹に与える）するが、獲物を傷つけずにおきたいときは、餌合子(えごうし)（餌箱）から肉片を出して与える。

［白井邦彦］

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