Family - clan

A patrilineal kinship group in China. In China, marriage between people of the same surname is prohibited, and adopted children should be from the same generation of children. A clan can refer to the range of people with the same surname in a broad sense, but it usually refers to a narrower unit that is unified as a group with a shared family tree, ancestral worship, and family property. However, in cases where the population of the same clan is small, such as overseas Chinese, it is not uncommon for people of the same surname from different lineages to be merged to form a functional group.

One of the major characteristics of lineages is that they are not necessarily homogeneous, and often contain members of different occupations and classes, such as landlords and tenant farmers, farmers and merchants, and bureaucrats, and even when they are divided into several factions, the economic and political status of these groups is not uniform. Wealthy groups have a high rate of membership growth and are highly segmented, with each member being able to belong to groups at various levels, but poor groups do not differentiate. In other words, an economic foundation is necessary for a lineage to have strong cohesion, and if this is lacking, tribal ties will be weak, with the members only performing ancestral worship and grave rituals at the family level. However, even these weak groups can become more cohesive as the need for political ties and economic power increases.

One of the conditions for a clan to have a strong function is that it is organized into a local group. Even in a village where the majority of the people are from the same clan, so-called single-family villages, or even multi-family villages, if they live together in a certain area, it is advantageous for daily mutual cooperation and defense against external enemies. Also, there are cases in southern China and central Taiwan where a population of more than 10,000 people is concentrated not in one village but in several neighboring villages.

The structure of the clans, which was differentiated based on economic power, was in contrast to the homogeneous individual-based groups common in primitive societies, and was one of the reasons why patrilineal organizations were able to function so well in civilized societies such as China. In addition, the traditional Chinese political system did not directly control individual peasants, as in Japan during the feudal period, but was indirect through the village gentry, who were landlords and intellectuals in the villages. Unless conflicts at the village level led to rebellions, they were left to self-governance centered on these influential people, which also strengthened the bonds of the clans. Having someone from within the clan pass the imperial examination, which was a qualification exam for high-ranking officials, was not just an honor, but was linked to interests in local politics. In order to survive the power struggles between clans, which sometimes involved armed combat, it was necessary for them to be united against the outside world, even if they had internal contradictions and conflicts. The compilation of family trees, which requires great expense and effort, the existence of lavishly decorated ancestral temples and shrines, and enormous areas of family fields, all take on significance in this context.

The above-mentioned lineages developed mainly in southern China after the Song Dynasty. There are several possible explanations for this, including (1) noble families moving south and developing in newly developed areas, (2) their necessity when settling and cultivating land, (3) the need for family unity due to poor public order, and (4) the need to maintain high productivity through wet-rice cultivation.

[Michio Suenari]

"The Lineage Structure of Southeast China" by Maurice Friedman, translated by Michio Suenari et al. (1991, Kobundo)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

中国の父系親族集団。中国では「異姓不養、同姓不娶(ふしゅ)」というように同姓者間の婚姻が禁じられ、養子も同姓の子の世代の者を迎えるべきとされている。宗族は、広義にはこの同姓の範囲をさすこともあるが、通常それより狭い、族譜、祖先祭祀(さいし)、族産などをともにし集団としてまとまっている単位を表す。ただし、海外華僑(かきょう)など同一宗族の人口が少ない場合、異系の同姓者を併合し機能集団をつくることも珍しくない。

　宗族の大きな特色の一つは、その内部が均質と限らず、しばしば地主と小作人、農民と商人、官僚といった職業や階層で異質のメンバーを含み、いくつかの分派に分かれている場合も、その集団相互間の経済的、政治的地位が一様でないことにある。富裕な集団は、成員増加率が高く分節化も進み、1人の成員がさまざまのレベルの集団に所属しうるが、貧乏な集団は分化が行われない。すなわち、宗族が強い凝集力をもつには、経済的基盤が必要で、これらを欠く場合、家族レベルでの祖先祭祀と墓の祭祀をともにする程度で、族的結合は希薄になる。ただし、こうした弱少集団も政治的結合の必要や経済力の増大に伴って、まとまりが顕在化することもある。

　宗族が強い機能をもつのは、地域集団化していることも一つの条件になる。一村落の大半が同一宗族で占める、いわゆる単姓村や、複姓村であっても一定の区画に集まり住んでいる場合、日常の相互協力や外敵からの防御に有利である。また一集落にとどまらず、隣接数集落にわたって万を超す人口が集まっている例も華南や台湾中部においてみられる。

　このような経済力を反映し分化をとげた宗族の構成は、未開社会に多くみられる均質な個人を単位とする単系出自集団の場合とは対照的であり、中国のような文明社会で父系組織が根強く機能しえた原因の一つであった。また、中国の伝統的政治機構も、たとえば藩政期の日本のように個々の農民を直接掌握せず、在郷地主であり知識人でもある郷紳層を介しての間接的なもので、村落レベルでの紛争も反乱に結び付かない限り、これら有力者を中心とした自治に任されていたことも、宗族の結合を強めた。宗族内から高級官吏資格試験である科挙の合格者を出すことは、単なる名誉にとどまらず、地方政治における利害関係と結び付いていた。またときに武闘を交えた各宗族間の勢力争いに生き残るためには、内部に矛盾や対立を抱えていても、外に対しては団結する必要があった。多額の費用と労力を要する族譜の作成や、豪華な装飾を施した祖廟(そびょう)ないし祠堂(しどう)、莫大(ばくだい)な面積を占める族田の存在は、こうした脈絡において意味をもつのである。

　以上のような宗族は、宋(そう)代以降おもに華南において発達した。その原因としては、〔1〕名族が南に移り新開地で展開形成した、〔2〕入植開拓の際に必要であったこと、〔3〕治安の悪さから一族団結が必要であったこと、〔4〕水稲耕作による高生産力を維持するため、などと結び付けた説明が試みられている。

［末成道男］

『モーリス・フリードマン著、末成道男他訳『東南中国の宗族組織』（1991・弘文堂）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例