Celadon

Japanese: 青磁 - せいじ

A type of porcelain. In principle, the surface of the vessel is a clear blue-green color, but this is because trace amounts of ferric oxide contained in the glaze and base are converted to ferrous oxide by strong reduction firing (if the glaze is exposed to even a small amount of oxidizing flame during this process, the color of the glaze will turn yellowish, becoming yellow-green or yellow-brown, and is commonly referred to as "drunk," but those that intentionally have a yellow celadon color are also called rice-colored celadon). Celadon, which has a mysterious beauty, is never fired outside of the Orient, and it is a symbol of Oriental culture and a fundamental presence that forms the backbone of the history of Oriental ceramics.

[Yoshiaki Yabe]

Chinese Celadon

Celadon, which originated in China, is said to be the oldest glazed pottery, and its origins date back to the mid-Yin dynasty (Zhengzhou period) around the 14th century BC. This is what is called primitive celadon (a pottery body glazed with ash), and examples have been excavated in central China's Henan Province (Erligang, Zhengzhou City), Hubei Province (Panlongcheng, Huangpi County), and southern Jiangxi Province (Wucheng, Qingjiang County), so it is presumed to be an improvement on the stamped pottery (hard pottery with stamped patterns on the surface covered with a natural glaze) that appeared in Jiangnan at the end of the Neolithic period. There are some researchers in modern China who firmly believe that this primitive celadon is celadon, and as evidence they have announced that the clay composition, firing temperature, water absorption rate, etc. meet the conditions for porcelain, and that the glaze is limestone, with iron as the coloring agent.

Celadon ware unearthed from a site in Jiangsu Province (Yiling Mountain, Wu County) dating back to the 6th century BC (Spring and Autumn Period) shows that celadon was gradually progressing, but it was not until the Later Han period (1st to 2nd century) that celadon really matured. In recent years, ancient kiln sites have been discovered in Ningbo City and Shangyu County on the northern coast of Zhejiang Province in southern China. This is about 1,300 years after the Yin Zhengzhou period, which shows how long it took for celadon to be perfected. Considering that ancient ash-glazed pottery kiln sites from the Spring and Autumn Period have also been discovered in nearby Xiaoshan County and Shaoxing County, there is no doubt that celadon technology has been refined in northern Zhejiang Province since the natural glaze seal-patterned hard pottery of the Neolithic Age.

As the northern part of Zhejiang Province was called "Yue", the celadon produced there was called Yue porcelain, and the kilns were called Yue kilns or Yuezhou kilns, and are considered to be the mother of the long history of Chinese celadon. Yue porcelain, which reached its peak in the Western Jin Dynasty (4th century) through the Later Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period (3rd century), is also commonly called "ancient Yue porcelain" for its simple yet elegant blue-green and blue-gray color. During the Six Dynasties period (Wei Jin Southern Northern Dynasty, 220-589), it marked a period with the invention of unique shapes such as the Tianji jar and the Shenting jar. In the latter half of the same period, ancient Yue porcelain kilns spread to Jiangsu in the north and Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan provinces in the south. Then, from the end of the Six Dynasties through the Sui period (581-618), the Northern Dynasties adopted this technology, giving rise to Shouzhou kilns (Anhui Province), Jiabicun kilns (Hebei Province), Anyang kilns (Henan Province), and others.

Much remains unknown about the actual state of Yue porcelain (celadon) production during the Sui and Tang dynasties, but in the 9th and 10th centuries, from the late Tang to the Five Dynasties, Yue porcelain made a great leap forward again, mainly in northern Zhejiang Province, in response to the Industrial Revolution, and products were exported to Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, West Asia, and even East Africa. In particular, during the period under the control of the Wuyue state of the Five Dynasties (907-978), they perfected fine products with rich patterns such as hair carving, openwork carving, and katakiri carving. These were called hisoku celadon, and were also used as tribute items. This led to the establishment of famous northern celadon kilns such as the Ruzhou kiln (Henan Province) and the Yaozhou kiln (Shaanxi Province) in the late 11th century, which would later come to be known as the Ru official kilns and praised as divine works of celadon. The Southern Song official kilns of the 13th century also included the Xiunaisi kiln and the Jiaotan kiln (Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province), which were praised for their superiority even surpassing that of jade. In the late Southern Song (13th century), the Longquan kiln (Zhejiang Province), a branch kiln of the Yuezhou kiln, was inspired by the Southern Song official kilns and produced Kinuta celadon with magnificent glaze colors, which were exported in large quantities to Japan. Production at Longquan kilns slowed down through the Yuan dynasty (14th century) and into the late Ming dynasty (16th century), eventually changing to a more transparent gray-green colored celadon, but in Japan, the Longquan kilns of the Yuan dynasty are called Tenryuji celadon, and those of the Ming dynasty are called Shichikan celadon. After that, celadon fell out of favor as a form of pottery, but in the Qing dynasty, imitation of Song dynasty celadon was actively produced at the Jingdezhen kilns, and it is still produced today, mainly in Zhejiang Province.

[Yoshiaki Yabe]

Korea, Japan, and others

The second best celadon after China was fired in the Korean peninsula. It dates back to the 10th century (early Goryeo period), and early kilns that used the pottery techniques of the Yuezhou kilns in China (Gangjin County, South Jeolla Province and Incheon Metropolitan City) have been discovered. In the 12th century, Goryeo celadon with an exquisite blue color called "emerald color" was perfected, and in the second half of the 12th century, they invented intricate inlaid celadon, in which patterns were created by inlaying red and white clay, and boasted a unique style of production that continued until the 15th and 16th centuries during the Yi dynasty. Celadon was also fired at Domari kilns (Gwangju County, Gyeonggi Province), which is particularly famous for its white porcelain.

In Vietnam, celadon porcelain was fired in the 14th century under the Trinh Dynasty, and in Thailand around the same time, the Suwankhalok kilns (Song Hulu Celadon) were opened under the Sukhothai Dynasty, and slightly later in northern Thailand, the San Kamphaeng kilns and Pan kilns each produced celadon.

In Japan, Imari ware in Arita (Saga Prefecture) was the first to successfully fire celadon in earnest in the 17th century, at the beginning of the Edo period, and after Nabeshima ware (Saga Prefecture) reached the highest level of technique, celadon was fired all over the country at the end of the Edo period and enjoyed a brief fad. Today, it is mainly used by ceramic artists as a means of artistic expression.

[Yoshiaki Yabe]

"Fujio Koyama, Ceramic Series 36: Celadon" (1978, Heibonsha)

Celadon straight necked bottle
Song Dynasty (late 10th century to 13th century) Height: 34cm Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art ">

Celadon straight necked bottle

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

磁器の一種。原則として器面は清澄な青緑色を呈するが、これは釉薬(ゆうやく)（うわぐすり）および素地(きじ)に微量に含まれる酸化第二鉄が、強力な還元焼成によって酸化第一鉄に変化するためである（この過程でわずかでも酸化炎を受けると釉色は黄変して黄緑色・黄褐色になり、俗に「酔っぱらう」などとも称されるが、意図的に黄色の青磁色を現したものは米色(べいしょく)青磁ともよばれる）。幽邃(ゆうすい)な美を秘めた青磁は東洋以外では焼造されることがなく、東洋文化を象徴するとともに、東洋陶磁史の骨格を形成する基本的な存在でもある。

［矢部良明］

中国の青磁

中国で創始された青磁は、釉薬をかけた焼物としては最古とされ、その起源は、紀元前14世紀ころの殷(いん)代中期（鄭州(ていしゅう)期）にまでさかのぼる。これは原始青磁といわれるもの（器胎に灰を塗って釉薬としたもの）で、中国中部の河南省（鄭州市二里岡）や湖北省（黄陂(こうは)県盤竜城）、南部の江西省（青江県呉城）などに出土例をみるので、おそらく新石器時代末期に江南に登場する印文(いんもん)陶（自然釉がかかる器面に印文のある硬陶(こうとう)）が改良されたものと推測される。現代の中国にはこの原始青磁を青磁といいきる研究者もおり、その根拠として胎土(たいど)の組成や焼成温度、吸水率などが磁器としての条件を備え、その釉薬が石灰釉で鉄分が呈色剤になっていることを発表している。

　前6世紀ころ（春秋時代）の江蘇(こうそ)省の遺跡（呉県夷陵山(いりょうさん)）から出土した青磁簋(き)は、徐々に青磁が進歩しつつあることを物語るが、本格的に青磁が熟成するのは後漢(ごかん)時代（1～2世紀）以降で、近年、中国南部の浙江(せっこう)省北部沿岸の寧波(ニンポー)市、上虞(じょうぐ)県に古窯址(し)が発見されている。これは上記の殷鄭州期から1300年ほども経過しており、いかに青磁がその完成までに長期間を要したかが理解されよう。近くの蕭山(しょうざん)県、紹興県には春秋時代の灰釉陶の古窯址も発見されていることなどを考え合わせると、新石器時代の自然釉印文硬陶以来、この浙江省北部において、青磁の技術が磨き抜かれてきたことは疑いない。

　浙江省北部は「越」とよばれたことから、そこで産した青磁は越磁(えつじ)といわれ、その窯(かま)は越窯(えつよう)または越州窯と称され、長い中国の青磁史の母胎をなすものとされている。後漢から三国時代（3世紀）を経て西晋(せいしん)時代（4世紀）に頂点を迎える越磁は、じみながら質実な青緑・青灰色を有して俗に「古越磁」ともよばれ、六朝(りくちょう)時代（魏(ぎ)晋南北朝、220～589）には天鶏壺(てんけいこ)、神亭壺などに代表される独自の造形を創案して一時期を画した。そして同時代後半には、古越磁系の窯は北の江蘇、南の福建・江西・湖南の各省へと広がっていく。そして六朝末から隋(ずい)時代（581～618）へかけてはその技術を北朝が受け止め、寿州窯（安徽(あんき)省）、賈壁(かへき)村窯（河北省）、安陽窯（河南省）などが誕生した。

　隋・唐代の越磁（青磁）生産の実態には不明なところが多いが、晩唐から五代へかけての9～10世紀になると、産業革命の時流を受けて越磁は浙江省北部を中心にふたたび躍進し、製品は日本、朝鮮、東南アジア、西アジアから東アフリカにまで輸出された。とくに五代の呉越(ごえつ)国の支配下にあった時代（907～978）には、毛彫り、透(すかし)彫り、片切(かたきり)彫りなどの豊麗な文様を加えた精品を完成させた。これは秘色(ひそく)青磁とよばれ、朝貢品にもあてられている。これが機縁となって、11世紀後半の北宋(ほくそう)初期には、のちに汝(じょ)官窯の名で青磁の神品とたたえられる汝州窯（河南省）や耀州(ようしゅう)窯（陝西(せんせい)省）など北方青磁の名窯が築かれた。また13世紀ころの南宋官窯には、玉(ぎょく)にも勝る優品と評される修内司(しゅないじ)窯、郊壇(こうだん)窯（浙江省杭州）がある。また南宋後期（13世紀）には、越州窯の支窯であった竜泉窯（浙江省）が南宋官窯に触発されて、みごとな釉色をもつ砧(きぬた)青磁を焼造し、日本にも大量に輸出されたものが伝世している。竜泉窯は元(げん)代（14世紀）を経て明(みん)代後期（16世紀）に作行きが低調になり、やがて透明性の強い灰緑色の青磁へと変じていってしまうが、日本では元代の竜泉窯を天竜寺青磁、明代のそれを七官(しちかん)青磁とよんでいる。以後、青磁は焼物としては主流の座を降りたが、清(しん)代になって景徳鎮(けいとくちん)窯で宋代青磁の倣作(ほうさく)が盛んに行われ、現在もなお浙江省を中心に焼造されている。

［矢部良明］

朝鮮・日本その他

中国に次いで優れた青磁は朝鮮半島で焼造された。その創始は10世紀（高麗(こうらい)時代初期）で、中国の越州窯の陶技を受けた草創期の窯（全羅南道康津郡や仁川広域市）が発見されている。12世紀には「翡色(ひしょく)」とよばれる絶妙な青色の高麗(こうらい)青磁を完成させ、さらに12世紀後半には赤土、白土を象眼(ぞうがん)して文様を表す繊細巧緻(こうち)な象眼青磁を案出して独自の作風を誇り、李朝(りちょう)の15～16世紀まで続行された。とくに白磁の名窯としても名高い道馬里窯（京畿道広州郡）でも青磁が併焼された。

　ベトナムでは陳(ちん)王朝下の14世紀に青磁が焼かれ、タイでも同じ時期のスコータイ王朝下でスワンカローク窯（宋胡録(すんころく)青磁）が開かれ、やや時期が下ると北部タイにおいてサンカンペン窯、パン窯がそれぞれ青磁を産した。

　日本では江戸時代初頭の17世紀に有田（佐賀県）の伊万里(いまり)焼が初めて本格的な青磁の焼成に成功し、技術的には鍋島(なべしま)焼（佐賀県）が最高水準に達したあと、江戸末期には全国各地で青磁が焼かれて一時の流行をみた。現在は主として陶芸作家が自己の芸術表現の手段として手がけている。

［矢部良明］

『小山冨士夫著『陶磁大系36　青磁』（1978・平凡社）』

青磁直頸瓶
宋代（10世紀後半～13世紀）　高さ34cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

青磁直頸瓶

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