Treaty - treaty

Japanese: 条約 - じょうやく（英語表記）treaty

meaning

It refers to an international agreement based on international law, and is considered to be an international document that binds states and international organizations. Independent states and public international organizations have the capacity to be parties to a treaty. In principle, the parties can freely negotiate any content that is not prohibited by international law, based on the procedures and restrictions of the constitution (basic law) of the party. In addition to the name treaty, the agreed document may be called an agreement, convention, statute, charter, declaration, exchange of notes, minutes, protocol, etc. The different names do not affect the effectiveness of the documents. Treaties have been used since ancient times when negotiations between nations began, and the oldest treaty in history is said to be a treaty for border demarcation concluded between the victors of the Mesopotamian city-state of Lagash and the people of another city-state of Umma around 2400 BC. In Japan, the first treaty was the Treaty of Peace and Amity between the United States and Japan (Kanagawa Treaty) in 1854 (Ansei 1).

[Sakutaro Tsutsugi]

Treaty Creation

Negotiations for treaties are conducted between representatives of the nations. The qualifications of the representatives are certified by full powers. Article 7, paragraph 5 of the Constitution of Japan stipulates that the Emperor, acting in matters of state with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, "attests full powers...." In bilateral treaties, the representatives of both nations negotiate the adjustment of the drafts presented by each party, while in multilateral treaties, a diplomatic conference is convened and a drafting committee is formed to prepare a draft or to deliberate on a draft prepared in advance. Once negotiations are concluded, the representatives of both nations sign the treaty. In treaties that explicitly do not require ratification, signing is the final step in the creation of the treaty. The significance of signing a treaty that requires ratification is that it finalizes the contents of the treaty, and has the effect of prohibiting one nation from changing the contents of the treaty after signing. A complete signature has the effect of a signature, but there is also a system of "initials", where only the representative's initials are written, or a "provisional signature", where the representative signs with the words "with further consideration ad referendum". A provisional signature will not have the effect of a signature unless it is later accompanied by a complete signature. The order of signatures on multilateral treaties at international conferences is the alphabetical order of the names of countries. Article 73, paragraph 3 of the Constitution of Japan stipulates that the Cabinet has the power to conclude treaties.

In the case of treaties that require ratification, ratification is the final step in the creation of the treaty. Ratification is carried out by the exchange or deposit of instruments of ratification, which are official national documents. The modern ratification system originated in the United States Constitution (established in 1787), and in the United States, treaties are created with the advice and approval of the President (executive branch) and two-thirds of the members of the Senate (parliament). The latter approval by the parliament is "effective ratification," and in order to ensure democracy through the constitutional separation of powers, it is an important procedure in which the parliament reviews the contents of the treaty concluded by the plenipotentiary representative (executive branch) for the benefit of the people and gives the final approval as a nation. Therefore, it may be impossible to create instruments of ratification due to the disapproval of the parliament. Regarding the treaty-concluding power of the Japanese cabinet, the constitution clearly states that "However, prior and, if appropriate, subsequent approval by the Diet is required."

There is a system for making reservations when signing, ratifying, joining, or approving a treaty (see the "Reservations" section). Since the treaty registration system was introduced in Article 18 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, it has been stipulated that "all treaties and international agreements which the member states of the United Nations shall be registered with the Secretariat as soon as possible" (Article 102, paragraph 1, Charter of the United Nations). If it is later discovered that there was an error in the important basis of the consent of a nation when creating a treaty, that it was concluded through fraudulent acts by the negotiating country, that it was concluded as a result of the bribery of its own representative, or that it clearly violated an important provision of its own constitutional procedures, the nation may claim that the consent is invalid. In addition, if coercion is imposed on the individual plenipotentiary representative, coercion is imposed on the nation itself through the threat or use of force, or the contents of the treaty conflict with "jus cogens," the treaty will become invalid and will cease to exist.

[Sakutaro Tsutsugi]

Treaty contents and implementation

The text of a treaty, whether bilateral (special) or multilateral (general), consists of (1) a preamble which states the general objectives of the treaty, the names of the plenipotentiaries and the treaty's official title, and its relationship to the UN Charter; (2) a main text which sets out the agreed upon contents; and (3) a final clause which sets out provisions for signature and ratification, and sometimes provisions for denunciation, withdrawal and reservations, the requirements for entry into force, duration, and authentic text of the treaty.

The treaties cover the following subjects: (1) social and humanitarian matters (such as academic exchanges, treaties on improving working conditions, and the International Covenant on Human Rights); (2) political matters (such as peace treaties, alliances, disarmament treaties, and treaties on the peaceful settlement of disputes); (3) commercial matters (such as treaties on customs, fisheries, commerce, and trade); and (4) other technical matters (such as treaties on industrial property, copyright protection, and transport, communications, traffic, and meteorology).

All valid treaties are binding on the parties, who must execute them in good faith. The principle of "pacta sunt servanda" (agreements must be kept) is a fundamental norm of international law as well as treaties. Article 98, paragraph 2 of the Japanese Constitution also stipulates that Japan must faithfully observe the treaties it concludes. Domestic implementation of treaties is based on the constitution of the treaty party. Article 6, paragraph 2 of the United States Constitution stipulates that treaties are the supreme law of the United States, and are binding on domestic courts and people without the need for separate domestic legislation. The Japanese Constitution also falls into this category. However, in the United States, there are exceptions: treaties that impose a financial burden on the state and treaties that involve changes to tariffs and tax rates require legislation by the House of Representatives, and treaties that require changes to criminal law cannot be implemented domestically until Parliament enacts legislation. In the United Kingdom, common law has established that the conclusion of treaties, including their ratification, is subject to the sovereign's prerogative. However, based on the principle of parliamentary supremacy that guarantees the rights and obligations of citizens, treaties that require changes or additions to laws implemented in the UK, treaties over which the King (executive branch) has no authority, and treaties that directly or continuously impose financial burdens on the UK are all implemented domestically through the enactment of legislation (Acts of Parliament). Many Commonwealth countries also fall into this category.

[Sakutaro Tsutsugi]

Termination of the Treaty

Termination of a treaty is different from invalidation due to illegal procedures or non-performance due to violation of treaty obligations, and refers to the extinction of a treaty due to the method specified in the treaty and the objective impossibility of implementing the treaty. There are two types of termination of a treaty: (1) termination based on the method of termination specified in the treaty, and (2) termination due to the objective impossibility of implementing the treaty. In the case of (1), this includes the expiration of a treaty with a set period, the complete implementation of a disposition treaty (such as a territorial cession or lease treaty), the implementation of a denunciation or withdrawal clause, and the replacement (renewal) of an old treaty by the conclusion of a new treaty between the same parties. Cases of (2) include the disappearance of a state party to the treaty (however, the continuation of a domestic revolution or coup d'état is not considered the disappearance of a state. The disappearance of a state applies to cases where a state disappears due to a merger, annexation, division, or partition of a state), the permanent disappearance of the object of the treaty, the application of the principle of changed circumstances, the violation of a major clause by one of the parties to a bilateral treaty, the impossibility of the treaty being performed due to the severance of diplomatic or consular relations, the termination of a bilateral political treaty due to the outbreak of war (however, it may be suspended and then revived after the war), and a treaty that violates peremptory norms that emerge after the conclusion of the treaty (becomes invalid and terminates). In principle, treaties do not have binding force on third countries.

[Sakutaro Tsutsugi]

"Studies on Treaty Law" by Tsutsuka Sakutaro (1967, Chuo University Press)" ▽ "Studies on Treaty Law Continued" by Tsutsuka Sakutaro (1977, Chuo University Press)" ▽ "The Theory and Practice of Treaty Law" by Sakamoto Shigeki (2004, Toshindo)

[References] | Change of Circumstances Principle | Ratification | Reservations

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

意味

国際法に基づいて成立する国際的合意をさしてよび、国家および国際機構を拘束する国際的文書とされる。当事者能力を保有するのは独立国家および公的国際機構である。当事国は、原則として、当事国の憲法（基礎法）上の手続および制約に基づいて、国際法が禁止しないいっさいの内容を、交渉によって自由に作成できる。合意した文書には、条約という名称以外に、協約、協定、規約、憲章、宣言、交換公文、議事録、議定書などの名称が用いられる。名称が異なることで、その相互間に効力の優劣はない。条約は、国家間の交渉が始まった古代から使用されており、歴史上もっとも古い条約は、紀元前2400年ごろにメソポタミアの都市国家ラガシュの戦勝者と他の都市国家ウンマの人民の間で結ばれた国境画定のための条約であるといわれている。日本では、1854年（安政1）の日米和親条約（神奈川条約）が最初である。

［經塚作太郎］

条約の作成

条約の交渉は、国家の代表者間で行われる。代表の資格は全権委任状full powersによって証明される。日本国憲法第7条5項は、内閣の助言と承認に基づく天皇の国事行為として、「……全権委任状……を認証すること」と規定している。条約作成の交渉は、二国間条約では、両国代表が提示する双方の草案の調整を談判し、多数国間条約の場合は、外交会議が招集され、起草委員会が構成されて草案を作成したり、あらかじめ準備された草案を基礎に審議する。交渉がまとまると、全権代表の署名が行われる。批准を必要としないことを明示する条約では、署名が条約作成の最終手続となる。批准を必要とする条約における署名の意義は、その条約内容を確定させる意味をもち、署名後の一方国家による条約内容の変更が禁止される効果を伴う。完全な署名により、署名の効果を伴うが、代表の頭文字のみを記入する「イニシアル」や「なおいっそうの考慮ad referendum」なる文字を入れて署名する「仮署名」の制度もある。仮署名は、のちに完全な署名を伴わなければ署名の効果を生じない。国際会議での多数国間条約の署名の順は、国名のアルファベットの順とされる。日本国憲法第73条3項は、内閣が条約締結権をもつと規定している。

　批准を必要とする条約の場合、批准が条約作成の最終手続となる。批准は、国家の公文書である批准書の交換または寄託によって行われる。近代的意味での批准制度は、アメリカ合衆国憲法（1787年制定）に起源をもち、アメリカでは、条約は大統領（行政府）と上院（議会）の出席議員の3分の2の助言と承認によって作成される。後者の議会の承認が「実質的批准」であり、憲法上の権力分立による民主主義の確保のため、全権代表＝行政府の締結した条約内容を、議会がふたたび国民の利益のために検討し、国家としての最終承認を与える重要な手続となっている。したがって、議会の不承認による批准書の作成不能も生じうる。日本の内閣の条約締結権も、憲法は「但し、事前に、時宜によつては事後に、国会の承認を経ることを必要とする」と明示している。

　条約の署名、批准、加入、承認に際して、留保を申し込む制度がある（「留保条項」の項参照）。国際連盟規約第18条で、条約の登録制度が導入されてから、国際連合の加盟国にとって「……締結するすべての条約及びすべての国際協定は、なるべくすみやかに事務局に登録」（国際連合憲章102条1項）することとされた。条約の作成にあたり、国家としての同意の重要な基礎に錯誤があったこと、交渉相手国の詐欺的行為によって締結したこと、自国の代表の買収の結果結ばれたこと、自国の憲法上の手続の重要な規定に明白に違反したことがのちに発見された場合、その同意を無効とする旨を相手に主張できる。また全権代表個人に加えられた強制、武力の威嚇や行使による国家自体に加える強制、および条約内容が「強行規範」に抵触する場合には、その条約が無効となって消滅する。

［經塚作太郎］

条約内容と条約の実施

条約文は、二国間（特別）条約も多数国間（一般）条約も、(1)条約の一般的目的、全権代表の名前と条約の正式の呼称、国連憲章との関連などを声明する前文、(2)合意した内容を条文にした本文、(3)署名、批准条項、ときには廃棄、脱退、留保条項、効力発生のための要件、持続期間、条約の正文を定めた最終条項、により構成される。

　条約が対象とする内容は、(1)社会、人道に関するもの（学術交流、労働条件の向上に関する条約、国際人権規約など）、(2)政治的なもの（講和、同盟、軍縮条約、紛争の平和的解決に関する条約など）、(3)商事に関するもの（関税、漁業、通商、貿易に関する条約など）、(4)その他技術的なもの（工業所有権、著作権の保護、運輸・通信・交通・気象に関する条約など）である。

　効力を有するすべての条約は当事国を拘束し、当事国はこれらの条約を誠実に履行しなければならない。「合意は守られなければならないpacta sunt servanda」の原則は、条約はもちろん国際法の根本規範でもある。日本国憲法第98条2項も、日本が締結した条約の誠実な遵守を定めている。条約の国内実施は、条約当事国の憲法に基づいて行われる。アメリカ合衆国憲法第6条2項では、条約がアメリカの最高法規で、別段の国内立法を必要とせず国内裁判所および国民を拘束する旨が定められている。日本国憲法もこの型に入る。ただし、アメリカでも例外的に、国家に財政負担を及ぼす条約、関税や税率の変更を伴う条約は、下院の立法が必要であるし、刑事法の変更を必要とする条約は、議会が立法するまでは国内実施が行われない。イギリスでは条約の締結は、その批准を含めて国王の大権に属することがコモン・ローで確立している。ただし、国民の権利義務を保障する議会優位の原則から、イギリスで実施されている法律に変更または追加を必要とする条約、国王（行政府）が権限を有しない内容の条約、イギリスに直接または継続的に財政的負担を及ぼす条約は、すべて立法（議会法）を制定して国内に実施される。イギリス連邦諸国の多くもこの型に入る。

［經塚作太郎］

条約の終了

条約の終了とは、違法な手続による無効や、条約義務に違反する不履行とは異なり、条約が定める方法および条約の実施が客観的に不能であることを原因とする条約の消滅である。条約の終了は、(1)条約中に規定される終了方法に基づく終了と、(2)条約の実施が客観的に不能となることによる終了とがある。(1)の場合は、期間の設定のある条約の期限の満了、処分条約（領域の割譲や租借条約）の完全履行、廃棄および脱退条項の実施、同一当事国間の新しい条約の締結による旧条約の交替（更新）などである。(2)の場合は、条約当事国の消滅（ただし、国内の革命やクーデターの継続は国家の消滅とみない。国家の消滅は、国家の合併、併合、分裂、分割による消滅の場合が該当する）、条約の目的物の永久的消失、事情変更の原則の適用、二国間条約の一方当事国による重大な条項の違反、外交関係または領事関係の断絶による条約の履行不能、戦争の勃発(ぼっぱつ)による二国間の政治的条約の終了（ただし、停止で戦後に復活もありうる）、締結後に出現する強行規範に違反する条約（無効となって終了）である。条約は原則として第三国には拘束力が及ばない。

［經塚作太郎］

『經塚作太郎著『条約法の研究』（1967・中央大学出版部）』▽『經塚作太郎著『続条約法の研究』（1977・中央大学出版部）』▽『坂元茂樹著『条約法の理論と実際』（2004・東信堂）』

[参照項目] | 事情変更の原則 | 批准 | 留保条項

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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