Treaty Revision - Jōyaku Kaisei

Political negotiations were held in the Meiji period to revise the unequal treaties concluded with the western powers at the end of the Edo period. The Ansei Five-Power Treaties (1858), concluded when the shogunate succumbed to pressure from the US and other Western powers, were a typical example of unequal treaties, lacking independent tax authority, as (1) they contained unilateral consular court provisions, meaning that Japanese laws and courts were not applied to crimes committed by foreigners, and (2) they did not grant tariff autonomy to the Japanese side alone. After the tax revision agreement was signed, the tariff rate remained fixed at a low rate of 5%, and cheap foreign goods flooded into the Japanese market, causing an imbalance in the international balance of payments and significantly impeding Japan's industrial development. The revision of these unequal treaties, which undermined Japan's independence and national interests, was the greatest wish of the Meiji government, which was established with nationalism as the basic principle of national policy.

In 1871 (Meiji 4), the government sent the Iwakura Mission to Europe and America to hear their intentions, but it ended in failure. In 1876, under the leadership of Terashima Munenori, Minister of Foreign Affairs, diplomatic negotiations were started with each representative of each country, aiming at the restoration of tariff autonomy. The restoration of taxation rights was especially desired from the viewpoint of strongly promoting the policy of industrial development, protecting industry, and increasing revenue. However, the negotiations were frustrated by the strong opposition of the British Minister to the United States, Parkes, and the revised agreement with the United States, which accepted the Japanese proposal, became a dead letter because the consent of the other great powers was required for it to take effect. Inoue Kaoru, who took over as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1879, changed the policy and tried to gradually restore both taxation and legal rights, but behind this was the fact that cases of crimes committed by foreigners hidden in consular trials had stirred up domestic sentiment, and he focused on the restoration of legal rights in particular. At the suggestion of the British, who remained firm against the Inoue proposal, a preliminary conference for the revision of the treaty was held in Tokyo in 1882. This conference showed particular reluctance to restore legal authority, and finally reached an agreement on the following conditions for placing trials involving Westerners under Japanese judicial authority: (1) special provisions for the employment of Western judges, and the use of mixed courts with Japanese judges, the majority of whom were Western judges; (2) the prompt establishment of written Japanese laws based on the principles of Western legal systems; and (3) the opening of all residence and business rights in the mainland to foreigners. The main conference for the revision, which began in 1886, also concluded with this proposal, and the major powers also agreed to raising the tariff rate from 5% to 11%. During this time, Foreign Minister Inoue tried to create the appearance that Japan was rapidly westernizing in order to gain an advantage in the negotiations. This led to a temporary fad among upper class society in which people imitated Western customs, known as the Rokumeikan era. However, government advisor Boissonade voiced opposition, arguing that the contents of the proposed amendments would undermine Japan's legal independence. There were other influential voices of opposition within the government, and the Freedom and Civil Rights Movement, which had learned of the contents, denounced the amendments as a national disgrace and adopted a hard-line foreign policy stance, leading to an increase in anti-government protests. In 1887, Foreign Minister Inoue resigned and treaty revision negotiations were postponed, but the political situation did not calm down, so the government issued the Security Ordinance in an attempt to restore order.

Inoue's successor as foreign minister, Okuma Shigenobu, a member of the Liberal Rights Party and a member of the Constitutional Reform Party, switched to a method of individual negotiations with the great powers, and while based on the amendments proposed by Inoue's time, he also attempted to strictly enforce the existing treaties, cracking down on illegal attempts by foreigners to advance outside the settlements, making foreigners keenly aware of the inconveniences of the existing treaties, and thereby obtaining more favorable conditions. First, a mutually equal treaty was concluded with Mexico (1888), and then in 1889 a separate treaty was concluded with the United States, which recognized the restoration of Japan's legal rights and opened the Japanese mainland in exchange for the conditions that (1) the Daishin'in would be the only mixed court in which Western judges were the majority in cases involving Westerners, and (2) a codified legal system would be established but would not be bound by Western legal principles. However, Britain was adamantly opposed to this content, and when the content of the treaty was reported in Japan through the Times newspaper, the Liberal Party and nationalists, who supported civil rights, launched attacks on the government, claiming that it violated the constitution and that it was dangerous for people to live together on the mainland. Okuma was injured by an assassin's bomb, the revision negotiations were once again thwarted, and the separate treaty was also annulled.

Thus, the revision of the treaty faced many difficulties, caught between pressure from other nations and opposition from the domestic civil rights movement. However, Britain became increasingly wary of Russia's policy of expanding into the Far East, which included plans to start construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and as a result began to attach importance to friendly relations between Japan and Britain, which eventually led to a breakthrough in this difficult situation.

In light of the failure of the Okuma Plan, Aoki Shuzo (former Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs), Minister of Foreign Affairs in the first Yamagata Aritomo Cabinet, presented a proposal to abolish consular jurisdiction without employing Western judges or making any public commitment to the establishment of a codified legal system. Surprisingly, Britain began to show signs of compromise. Enomoto Takeaki, who succeeded Aoki after he resigned following the Otsu Incident, also followed Aoki's approach and negotiated with other nations, first succeeding in abolishing consular jurisdiction with Portugal. Next, Mutsu Munemitsu, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the second Ito Cabinet, began negotiations with Britain, Germany, and the United States individually, and thanks to the efforts of Aoki, Minister to Germany (former Foreign Minister), he succeeded in negotiating with Britain in July 1894 to abolish extraterritoriality and raise taxes, on the grounds of the rule of law after the establishment of codified legal regulations. The condition at this time was the opening of the interior (mixed living), but hardline foreign policy factions seized on this point and raised their voices in opposition to the government, forcing the cabinet to take strong measures, such as dissolving the House of Representatives one after another, in order to overcome the situation. Aided by Japan's improved international standing following its victory in the Sino-Japanese War, revised treaties with the same content were signed with the remaining powers by the end of 1897 (which came into effect in July 1899). However, these revised treaties did not restore the perpetual leases of the former settlements, leaving issues to be resolved later. On the other hand, the restoration of tariff autonomy was delayed, and was realized in July 1911 (Meiji 44) during the second Katsura Taro cabinet after the Russo-Japanese War, under Foreign Minister Komura Jutaro, after the deadline for the conclusion of the first revised treaty had expired. Japan had now become an independent nation in both name and reality, and entered into international relations on an equal footing with the great powers.

[Tanaka Tokihiko]

"History of Treaty Revision" by Yamamoto Shigeru (1943, Takayama Shoin)" ▽ "Historical Development of Treaty Revision Arguments" by Inou Noritaro (1976, Komine Shoten)" ▽ "Compilation of Treaty Revision Records, volumes 1 and 2, edited by Oyama Azusa and Inou Noritaro (1991, Hara Shobo)" ▽ "History of Treaty Revision" by Yamamoto Shigeru (1997, Ozorasha)" ▽ "Treaty Revision and Domestic Politics" by Komiya Kazuo (2001, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Study of the History of Treaty Revision in Japan: Inoue/Okuma Revision Negotiations and European and American Countries" by Fujiwara Akihisa (2004, Yushodo Publishing)" ▽ "Treaty Revision" by Inoue Kiyoshi (Iwanami Shinsho)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

幕末、列国との間に締結された不平等条約を改正するため、明治時代に行われた政治交渉。アメリカをはじめ、西洋列強の圧力に幕府が屈して締結されるに至った、いわゆる安政(あんせい)五か国条約（1858）は、(1)片務的領事裁判規定があり、外国人犯罪に日本の法律、裁判は適用されず、(2)関税自主権も日本側のみに与えられず、税権の独立を欠く典型的な不平等条約であった。改税約書が結ばれてからは、関税率が5％の低率に固定されたままとなり、安い外国商品が大量に日本市場に流入し、国際収支を不均衡にしたばかりか、日本の産業発達を著しく阻害した。このように日本の独立と国益とを損なう不平等条約の改正は、民族主義を国家政策の基本理念に掲げて成立した明治政府にとって、最大の悲願ともいうべきものであった。

　1871年（明治4）政府は岩倉使節を欧米各国に派遣して列国の意向を打診したが失敗に終わり、76年から外務卿(きょう)寺島宗則(むねのり)の下で、まず関税自主権の回復を目ざす外交交渉が、列国代表との間に個別に始められた。殖産興業政策を強力に展開し、産業保護、歳入増大を図る観点から、とくに税権の回復が切実に要望されたからである。ところがイギリス公使パークスの強い反対でこの交渉は挫折(ざせつ)し、日本側提案を認めたアメリカとの改定約書も、他の列強の同意が発効の要件となっていたので、死文に等しいものとなった。79年かわって外務卿に就任した井上馨(かおる)は、方針を転換して税権、法権をともに漸進的に回復しようと試みたが、その背景には領事裁判に隠れた外国人犯罪事件が国内人心を刺激したこともあって、とりわけ法権回復に専念することになった。井上案に対しても依然強硬なイギリス側の提案で、82年より東京で条約改正予議会が開かれた。この会議ではとくに法権回復に難色が示され、西洋人関係の裁判を日本の司法権下に置くにあたり、(1)とくに西洋人法官採用の特例を認め、西洋人法官が多数を占める日本人法官との混成裁判で運用する、(2)西洋法制の原理に基づく日本の成文法規を速やかに制定する、(3)内地の居住権、営業権をすべて外国人に開放する、などを条件とすることでようやくまとまった。86年からの改正本会議もこの案で妥結し、加えて関税率も5％から11％に引き上げることに列国側は同意した。この間、井上外相は交渉を有利に展開するため、日本が急速に西洋化したとの外観をつくりだそうとした。ここに鹿鳴館(ろくめいかん)時代とよばれる欧米の風俗を模倣する風潮が、上流社会に一時流行することとなった。しかるに政府顧問ボアソナードは、この改正案の内容が日本の法権独立を毀損(きそん)するものであるとして反対意見を唱えた。政府内にはほかにも有力な反対意見があったうえ、内容を漏れ知った自由民権派が国辱であると非難して対外硬論を掲げ、反政府運動が高まりをみせた。87年井上外相は辞職し、条約改正交渉は延期となったが、政情は沈静せず、ために政府は保安条例を発布して秩序の回復を図った。

　井上の後任に推された自由民権派立憲改進党系の外相大隈重信(おおくましげのぶ)は、列強と個別交渉を行う方法に切り替え、井上時代の改正案を基調としながら、一方では現行条約を遵守することによって、居留地外に進出するための外国人側の脱法行為を厳しく取り締まり、現行条約の不便さを外国人に痛感させ、そのことによってより有利な条件をかちとろうと試みた。まずメキシコとの間に相互平等条約（1888）が、ついで1889年アメリカとの間に、(1)西洋人関係の裁判に西洋人法官が多数を占める混成裁判所を大審院のみに限り、(2)成文法体系は整備するが、西洋法原理にはとらわれない、との条件で日本の法権回復を認め、引き換えに日本内地を開放する単独条約が締結された。しかるにイギリスはあくまでこの内容に反対し、しかもその内容がタイムズ紙上を通じて日本国内に伝わるに及んで、自由民権派自由党系や国家主義者らは、憲法違反、内地雑居の危険を叫んで政府攻撃を展開した。大隈は刺客の爆弾によって負傷し、改正交渉はまたも挫折し、単独条約も取消しとなった。

　このように条約改正は、列国の圧力と国内自由民権派の反対で板挟みのなかに難航を重ねた。しかるに、シベリア鉄道の起工を計画するロシアの極東進出政策に、イギリスは警戒を深め、そのため日英間の友好関係を重視するようになったので、この難境も打開されていくこととなった。

　第一次山県有朋(やまがたありとも)内閣の外相青木周蔵（前外務次官）が、大隈案の失敗にかんがみ、西洋人法官を採用せず、成文法体系の整備も公約しないで領事裁判権を撤廃しようとする案を提示したのに対し、イギリスは意外にも妥協を示し始めた。大津事件で辞任した青木の後任、榎本武揚(えのもとたけあき)も青木の路線を受けて列国と交渉、まずポルトガルとの間で領事裁判権撤廃に成功した。ついで第二次伊藤内閣の外相陸奥宗光(むつむねみつ)は、イギリス、ドイツ、アメリカ3国に対する各国別の交渉を開始、青木駐独公使（元外相）の尽力により、成文法規制定後の法治化を理由に、1894年7月まずイギリスとの間に治外法権の撤廃、税率引上げの交渉に成功した。このときの条件は、内地開放（雑居）であったが、対外硬派はこの点をとらえて政府反対の気勢をあげ、そのため内閣は相次いで衆議院を解散する強硬手段をとって、事態を乗り切らなくてはならなかった。日清(にっしん)戦争の勝利という国際的地位の向上にも助けられて、97年末までに残る列国との間に同じ内容の改正調印が行われた（1899年7月から発効）。しかし、これらの改正条約で旧居留地の永代借地権は回収されないままだったため、のちに問題を残すこととなった。他方、関税自主権の回復はこれより遅れ、日露戦争後第二次桂(かつら)太郎内閣のとき1911年（明治44）7月、前述の第一次改正条約の締結期限の終了をまって、外相小村寿太郎(じゅたろう)の下で実現され、ここに日本は名実ともに独立国家となり、列強と対等な国際関係に入ることとなった。

［田中時彦］

『山本茂著『条約改正史』（1943・高山書院）』▽『稲生典太郎著『条約改正論の歴史的展開』（1976・小峰書店）』▽『大山梓・稲生典太郎編『条約改正調書集成』上下（1991・原書房）』▽『山本茂著『条約改正史』（1997・大空社）』▽『小宮一夫著『条約改正と国内政治』（2001・吉川弘文館）』▽『藤原明久著『日本条約改正史の研究　井上・大隈の改正交渉と欧米列国』（2004・雄松堂出版）』▽『井上清著『条約改正』（岩波新書）』

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