National Compensation - Kokkahosho

Japanese: 国家補償 - こっかほしょう
National Compensation - Kokkahosho

Generally, it refers to a state compensating for losses incurred by its citizens through its activities. The concept of state compensation can vary depending on the extent or scope of the state's responsibility for providing compensation, but in recent years, it has tended to broaden to include not only direct losses incurred through state activities, but also indirect losses and compensation for taking responsibility for placing the other party in a dangerous situation. Even more broadly, from a policy or administrative standpoint, it can also include monetary payments made by the state to provide relief when damage is caused to citizens, even if the state is not responsible.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

State compensation in the narrow sense

In the past, the idea that the state was not held responsible for damages caused by state activities was known as the "principle of state irresponsibility," and this idea was also prevalent in Japan during the Meiji Constitution era. However, the idea that if a citizen suffers a loss due to state activities and the loss is not based on the individual's fault, it is a natural requirement based on the principles of social justice and fairness that the state should compensate for the loss, and the current constitution has established a state compensation system based on this idea. In such cases, the reasons and methods for compensating for losses differ depending on the cause or manner of the loss, and according to these differences, three types of state compensation systems are distinguished and stipulated in the constitution. First, they are divided into compensation for damages caused by illegal state activities and compensation for losses when property rights are infringed by lawful state activities. The former is state compensation (Article 17 of the Constitution), and the latter is compensation for losses under public law (Article 29, paragraph 3 of the Constitution). Furthermore, based on the idea that the state is responsible for the consequences that arise, there is criminal compensation (Article 40 of the Constitution), whereby the state will provide compensation to a person who has been detained or incarcerated as a criminal (suspect) and is later found not guilty.

(1) State Compensation The Japanese Constitution provides that "Any person who has suffered damage as a result of the tort of a public official may, as provided by law, sue the State or a public entity for compensation" (Article 17), and the State Compensation Law was enacted in response (1947). According to this law, the State or a public entity is liable for compensation not only in cases specified by the Constitution, namely, "When a public official exercising public authority, in the course of performing his/her duties, has unlawfully caused damage to another person through intent or negligence" (Article 1), but also in cases where "damage has been caused to another person due to defects in the installation or management of roads, rivers, or other public facilities" (Article 2, paragraph 1). Article 2 provides for so-called no-fault liability. In both Articles 1 and 2, the courts often interpret the meaning of the provision broadly or loosely, and make decisions in the direction of providing relief to the victim. For example, taking Article 2 as an example, apart from cases considered to be unavoidable (such as damage caused by a typhoon), there are many cases in which state compensation is recognized for damage that is considered to be man-made.

(2) Compensation for losses The constitution provides that "Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation" (Article 29, paragraph 3). The issue of compensation for losses is two-sided with the protection of property rights. Therefore, when special sacrifices are made of private property for the public good, compensation for losses associated with the sacrifices must be paid from the standpoint of fair burden sharing. What does "just compensation" mean? Case law has dictated that it should be "a reasonable amount calculated reasonably," but in practice "full compensation" is guaranteed. The Land Expropriation Act has been established as the general procedural law for expropriation. However, there are few cases of compulsory acquisition under this law, and voluntary acquisition through negotiation is the norm.

(3) Criminal Compensation Based on the provision of the Constitution that "Any person who is found not guilty after having been arrested or detained may sue the State for compensation as provided by law" (Article 40), the Criminal Compensation Act (1950) was established. The purpose of the Act is that the State should take responsibility for the fact that the detention of the suspect/defendant becomes illegal when a not guilty verdict is finalized. If the case is not prosecuted, the suspect/defendant is not covered by criminal compensation, but compensation is necessary. For this reason, the "Suspect Compensation Regulations" were established, and in the case of criminal compensation, compensation is paid at a rate of 1,000 to 12,500 yen per day. In criminal procedures, if the public official in charge has acted with intent or negligence, a person may also seek compensation from the State (Article 5 of the Criminal Compensation Act).

[Masaaki Ikeda]

State compensation in a broad sense

Unlike in the past, modern state activities are carried out in various areas of the people's lives, and as such they often affect the rights and interests of the people. As a result, these three types of state compensation systems cannot compensate the people for all accidental losses caused by state activities. For example, indirect losses such as business losses caused by the implementation of public works projects are not compensated for. Therefore, in cases where losses are caused as a result of state activities or by putting the other party in a dangerous situation, the state may compensate by taking responsibility for the results or risk. In such cases, the state may provide compensation by individual laws or by expanding the scope of compensation as an administrative measure. For example, there are cases where the state compensates for damages caused by repairing and opening cultural properties to the public by order or recommendation of the Commissioner of the Agency for Cultural Affairs (Articles 41 and 52 of the Cultural Properties Protection Act) or by providing compensation for public service accidents (National Public Service Accident Compensation Act, Local Public Service Accident Compensation Act).

These are examples of cases where the state takes responsibility and provides compensation for two reasons: the loss is caused by the state's activities, and it is not appropriate to make the victim bear the loss. However, there is no typical legal system in the form of liability for result or liability for risk. In addition, in recent years, even if the state is not responsible for the occurrence of the damage and therefore does not need to be obligated to compensate, when there are actual victims and the damage cannot be compensated, the establishment of systems in which the state provides monetary compensation to the victims has become prominent. Examples include the pollution health damage compensation system, the drug side effect damage relief system, and the crime victim compensation system. These systems are based on the idea of ​​social security and go beyond the traditional concept of state compensation, but since the purpose of state compensation is ultimately thought to be to provide relief for damage caused to the body and property of the people, the recent trend in academic theory is that these victim relief systems as policy and administrative relief measures can also be considered as issues of state compensation. Combined with the tendency to expand relief through precedents in the narrow sense of state compensation law, state compensation may be said to show a social security orientation.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

“National Compensation Law System” (edited by Koichi Nishimura, Michi Ikuyo, and Itsuo Sonobe), all 4 volumes (1987, Nihon Hyoronsha)“National Compensation Law” by Katsuya Uga (1997, Yuhikaku)“Outline of National Compensation Law” by Akira Nishino (2008, Keiso Shobo)”

[Reference items] | Criminal compensation | Pollution health damage compensation | National compensation law | Just compensation | Crime victim compensation system | Drug damage

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一般に、国がその活動によって国民に対し生じた損失を補償すること。国がどの程度もしくは範囲まで責任を感じて補償するのかによって、国家補償の概念にも広狭がみられるが、近年は、国家活動により直接に生じた損失のみならず、間接的な損失や、相手方を危険な状態に置いたことに伴って責任をとる補償など、広がる傾向にあり、さらに広く、政策的・行政的な見地から、国民に被害が生じたとき、国に責任がなくとも、その救済のために国が行う金銭給付まで含めていう場合がある。

[池田政章]

狭義の国家補償

かつては「国家無責任の原則」などといわれて、国の活動による損害について国は責任を問われないという考え方が支配し、日本でも明治憲法時代ではこの考え方によっていた。しかし、国の活動によって国民が損失を被り、それが本人の責任に基づかない場合には、国がその損失を填補(てんぽ)すべきことは、社会的正義や公平の原則からいって当然の要請だという考え方がとられるようになって、現行憲法でもこの考え方に従った国家補償制度が設けられた。その場合、損失発生の原因なり態様が異なるにしたがって、損失を填補する理由や方法も異なり、この違いに応じて、憲法上、3種類の国家補償制度が区別され定められている。それはまず、違法な国家活動によって生じた損害の賠償と、適法な国家活動によって財産権を侵害した場合の損失の補償とに分けられるが、前者が国家賠償(憲法17条)であり、後者が公法上の損失補償(憲法29条3項)である。さらに、生じた結果に対して国が責任をとるという考え方のもとに、犯罪(容疑)者として抑留または拘禁された者が、のちに無罪の裁判を受けた場合に、国が補償する刑事補償(憲法40条)がある。

(1)国家賠償 日本国憲法は「何人(なんぴと)も、公務員の不法行為により、損害を受けたときは、法律の定めるところにより、国又は公共団体に、その賠償を求めることができる」(17条)と規定し、これを受けて国家賠償法が制定されている(1947)。この法律によれば、憲法が定めた場合、つまり「公権力の行使に当る公務員が、その職務を行うについて、故意又は過失によつて違法に他人に損害を加えたとき」(1条)に限らず、「道路、河川その他の公の営造物の設置又は管理に瑕疵(かし)があつたために他人に損害を生じたとき」(2条1項)も、国・公共団体は損害賠償責任をとることになっている。第2条の場合はいわゆる無過失責任を定めている。第1条、第2条いずれの場合についても、裁判所は、規定の意味を広くもしくは緩く解釈して、被害者を救済するという方向の判決をすることが多くなっている。たとえば、第2条の例をとれば、不可抗力と思われる場合(台風による被害など)は別にして、人災と思われる部分のある損害の発生については国家賠償を認める例が多い。

(2)損失補償 憲法上の根拠規定として「私有財産は、正当な補償の下に、これを公共のために用ひることができる」(29条3項)と定められている。損失補償の問題は、財産権の保障と表裏の関係にたち、したがって公共のために私有財産に対して特別の犠牲を強いるときは、公平負担の見地から、犠牲に伴う損失に対し補償されるのである。「正当な補償」とはどの程度をいうのか、判例上は「合理的に算出された相当な額」といわれているが、実務上は「完全な補償」が保障されている。収用のための一般手続法として土地収用法が定められている。しかし、この法律によって強制買収をするという実例は少なく、ほとんど話し合いによる任意買収の方法がとられている。

(3)刑事補償 「何人も、抑留又は拘禁された後、無罪の裁判を受けたときは、法律の定めるところにより、国にその補償を求めることができる」(40条)という憲法の規定に基づいて、刑事補償法(1950)が定められている。無罪の判決確定によって、被疑者・被告人に対するそれまでの人身の拘束が結果的に違法になるので、その結果責任を国がとろうという趣旨である。不起訴となった場合は、刑事補償の対象とはならないが、補償の必要があるので、そのため「被疑者補償規程」が定められ、刑事補償の場合、1日1000円以上1万2500円以下の割合で補償金が交付される。刑事手続上、担当公務員に故意・過失があれば、別に国家賠償を求めることもできる(刑事補償法5条)。

[池田政章]

広義の国家補償

現代における国家活動は、かつてと異なり国民のさまざまな生活領域について行われ、それだけ国民の権利・利益に影響を与えることが少なくない。そのため、この3種類の国家補償制度では、国家活動によって生じたすべての偶然の損失について、国民に対し填補しえないという状態が生ずる。たとえば、公共事業の施行に伴って生ずる事業損失のような間接的な損失は填補されない。そこで、国の活動によって、結果的に損失が生じたとか、あるいは相手方を危険な状態に置いたことによって生じた場合に、国が結果責任・危険責任をとるという形で補償がなされる場合がある。この場合については、個別的に法律が規定するか、行政措置として補償の範囲を広げるという形で行われ、たとえば、文化庁長官の命令・勧告によって文化財を修理・公開したことによって生じた損害を国が補償する(文化財保護法41条・52条)とか、公務災害補償を定める(国家公務員災害補償法、地方公務員災害補償法)などの例がある。

 これらは、国の活動に起因する損失であること、その損失を被害者に負担させることは適当でないことの2点より、国が責任をとって補償するという例であるが、結果責任・危険責任という形で類型的な法体系があるわけではない。これに加えて、近年は、損害の発生について国には原因がなく、したがって、その填補について義務を負う必要のない場合でも、現実に被害者がいて損害が填補されえないときには、国が被害者の救済のために金銭を給付するという制度の設定が目だっている。たとえば、公害健康被害補償制度、医薬品副作用被害救済制度、犯罪被害者補償制度などの例である。これらの制度は社会保障的考え方を基盤としたもので、従来の国家補償の概念からははみだすものであるが、国家補償の目的は、結局のところ国民の身体や財産に生じた被害を救済することに帰着すると考えられるから、政策的・行政的救済措置としてのこれらの被害者救済制度も国家補償の問題と考えてよいというのが、最近の学説の傾向である。狭義の国家補償法における判例による救済拡大の傾向と相まって、国家補償は社会保障的志向を示しているといってよいのかもしれない。

[池田政章]

『西村宏一・幾代通・園部逸夫編『国家補償法大系』全4巻(1987・日本評論社)』『宇賀克也著『国家補償法』(1997・有斐閣)』『西埜章著『国家補償法概説』(2008・勁草書房)』

[参照項目] | 刑事補償 | 公害健康被害補償 | 国家賠償法 | 正当な補償 | 犯罪被害者補償制度 | 薬害

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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