Individual - Kotai

Japanese: 個体 - こたい
Individual - Kotai

An organism is an indivisible unit with the structures and functions necessary for life, absorbing nutrients to grow, maintain its structure, and reproduce. Animals, plants, and fungi each have their own unique nutritional, structural, and reproductive methods. In addition to unicellular and multicellular organisms, there are also polynucleated organisms. These organisms have morphological, physiological, and ecological characteristics common to the species to which they belong. Thus, organisms of the same species are very similar to each other, but in species where sexual reproduction occurs in pairs, there are slightly different types of organisms, such as males and females. In addition, some organisms have a distinction between gametophytes, which reproduce sexually, and sporophytes, which reproduce asexually. In addition to organisms that live individually, some organisms form social groups, and some organisms form groups (colonies) in a certain way from new unicellular or multicellular organisms that are produced by division or budding.

[Hideji Harada]

Animals

In species that form colonies, several individuals exist as one unit, spatially and functionally in contact with one another, but there are clear partitions between the individuals, allowing them to move independently. There may also be several types of individuals with different roles. Colonies also have their own unique structure depending on the species, and in some cases, such as corals and bryozoans that have an appearance similar to that of individual organisms, the individuality of each individual is unclear. Even among social insects, such as honeybees, ants, and termites, there are colonies that are made up of several types of individuals with different roles. Such colony structures also have the characteristics of the species, and many of the ecological characteristics of a species are displayed by individuals as a group in relation to the outside world.

The morphology and ecology of an individual usually change with development, and there are many species that have stable developmental stages and generations with specific patterns. Since a part of an individual can produce another individual through regeneration, it may seem that an individual can be divided, but parts do not live as parts; basically, new individuals are created and live, so as a living organism, the individual is still a unit.

[Hideji Harada]

Plants

The cells that make up individual animals are eukaryotic cells, but among plants, only blue-green algae are prokaryotic, while the rest are eukaryotic. Some algae form colonies from single-celled bodies, and in particular, green algae such as Ctenocera japonica and Polytrichum commune form fixed colonies (consisting of a set number of single-celled bodies). In the hollow, spherical colonies of Volvox, some cells produce zoospores, while others produce eggs or sperm, and some form separate colonies of both sexes.

A polykaryon is a tubular body containing multiple nuclei, without partitions. It is found in various algae, but the green algae Acanthurus nigricans produces zoospores in a branched tubular body (a sporophyte several centimeters high) with rhizoids, and produces gametes in a minute gametophyte that arises from the zoospores. This gametophyte was once named as a separate organism.

The distinction between sporophyte and gametophyte is also seen in multicellular algae and ferns, but in kelp, the tiny gametophytes are dioecious. Ginkgo and Aucuba are also dioecious, and the individuals of vascular plants, including these, generally have organs such as roots, stems, and leaves and are called stem phyllodes. Algae individuals that do not have this type of anatomical differentiation are called thallus.

[Hironori Terakawa]

Fungi

Those with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotic fungi (also known as bacteria), and those with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotic fungi (also known as fungi). In terms of body structure, there are distinctions between unicellular bodies, hyphae (long and unbranched), and mycelium (a form in which hyphae grow by branching), and hyphae and mycelium can be either polynuclear or multicellular. Apart from these, slimy polynuclear bodies are characteristic of slime fungi and are called plasmodium. The unicellular bodies of myxobacteria and cellular slime molds live alone before forming groups that engage in gliding movement, and the groups eventually unite to form tiny fruiting bodies with characteristic shapes. The fruiting bodies are spore-forming bodies.

The typical body structure of other eukaryotic fungi is mycelium, which continues to grow within the substrate if the environment is suitable and produces spores one after another in various ways. In particular, many basidiomycetes form large fruiting bodies (so-called mushrooms) on multicellular mycelium, and the mycelium within the substrate continues to grow, repeating the formation of mushrooms year after year. Suppose a person who picks 10 mushrooms describes himself as having picked 10 individual mushrooms. However, this expression is clearly incorrect, because mushrooms are reproductive organs, and the mycelium, which is the main body of the individual, is inside the substrate and cannot be seen with the naked eye. In this sense, the common concept of an individual in plants and animals, such as an individual having a roughly fixed shape, size, and lifespan, cannot be intuitively applied to fungi.

[Hironori Terakawa]

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

生物が生活するのに必要な構造と機能を備えた不可分の単位体であって、栄養吸収を行って成長し、体制を維持し、さらに生殖を行う生活体である。栄養法、体制、生殖法は動物、植物、菌類によってそれぞれ特徴がある。個体には単細胞体と多細胞体のほかに多核体もみられる。これらの個体は、それぞれが属する生物種に共通する形態的・生理的・生態的特徴をもっている。したがって、同じ種に属する個体は互いによく似ているが、2個体によって有性生殖が行われる種では、雄と雌のように、個体に多少異なる型がある。さらに、有性生殖を行う配偶体と、無性生殖を行う胞子体との区別のあるものもある。また、個体が個々に生活する場合のほか、社会性集団をつくるものや、分裂や出芽によって生じた単細胞または多細胞の新個体が、ある決まったやり方で集団(群体)をつくるものもある。

[原田英司]

動物類

群体をつくる種では、いくつかの個体が互いに空間的にも機能的にも接して一体となって存在するが、個体間には明確な仕切りがあって独立に運動することができる。個体に役割の異なるいくつかの型がみられることもある。群体にも種によって固有の構造があり、あたかも個体のような外観を呈するサンゴ類やコケムシ類などのように、個体の個体性が不明確になっているものもある。社会性昆虫などでも、ミツバチ、アリ、シロアリなどのように、役割の異なるいくつかの型の個体で集団を構成するものがある。そうした集団の構造にも種の特性があり、種の生態的特性には個体が外界との関係のなかで集団として示すものも多い。

 個体の形態や生態などは発育に伴って変化するのが普通で、特有の型をもつ安定した発育段階や世代がみられる種も少なくない。個体の一部分から再生などによって別の個体を生じることもあるので、個体は分割可能のようにもみえるが、部分が部分のままで生活することはなく、基本的には新しい個体がつくりだされて生活するのであるから、生活体としてはやはり個体が単位体である。

[原田英司]

植物類

動物類の個体をつくっている細胞は真核細胞であるが、植物類では藍藻(らんそう)類だけが原核細胞で、他は真核細胞である。藻類には単細胞体が群体をつくるものがあり、とくに緑藻類ではクンショウモ、アミミドロなどが定数群体(一定数の単細胞体からなる)をつくる。ボルボックスの中空球状の群体では、ある細胞は遊走子を、他の細胞は卵または精子を生じ、また、雌雄別に群体をつくるものもある。

 多核体は多核を含む管状体で、仕切りはない。いろいろの藻類でみられるが、緑藻類のツユノイトは仮根のある分岐した管状体(数センチメートルの高さの胞子体)に遊走子を生じ、遊走子から生じた微小な配偶体に配偶子を生ずる。この配偶体は昔は別種の生物として名づけられていた。

 胞子体と配偶体との区別があるものは多細胞体の藻類やシダ類でもみられるが、コンブでは微小な配偶体が雌雄異体である。イチョウやアオキなども雌雄異体であり、これらを含む維管束植物類の個体は一般に根、茎、葉という器官を備えていて茎葉体といわれる。このような体制分化のない藻類の個体は葉状体といわれる。

[寺川博典]

菌類

原核細胞のものは原核菌類(いわゆる細菌類)、真核細胞のものは真核菌類(いわゆる菌類)である。体制からみると、単細胞体、菌糸(細長くて分岐がない)、菌糸体(菌糸が分岐して成長した形態)などの区別があり、菌糸、菌糸体には多核体のものと多細胞体のものとがある。これらとは別に、粘液状の多核体は変形菌類の特徴であって変形体といわれる。粘液細菌類や細胞粘菌類の単細胞体は単独の生活ののちに集団をつくって滑走運動を行い、やがて集団が一体となって特徴的な形態の微小な子実体を形成する。子実体は胞子形成体である。

 その他の真核菌類の代表的な体制は菌糸体であり、これは環境が適当であれば基物内で成長を続け、いろいろの方法で次々と胞子を形成する。とくに担子菌類の多くは多細胞菌糸体上に大きい子実体(いわゆるキノコ)を形成し、基物内の菌糸体はさらに成長を続けて年々キノコ形成を繰り返す。このキノコをたとえば10個とった人が、10個体のキノコをとったと表現したとする。しかし、この表現は明らかに誤りである。なぜなら、キノコは繁殖器官であり、個体の本体である菌糸体は基物内にあって目には見えていない。こうしてみると、個体にはおよそ決まった形、大きさ、寿命があるといったような、動植物類でいう個体の通俗的な概念は、直観的に菌類に当てはめることはできないわけである。

[寺川博典]

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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