Nationalization (English spelling)

Japanese: 国有化 - こくゆうか（英語表記）nationalization 英語

The transfer of non-state property, including private property, to state ownership and management. The construction of new state-owned enterprises is not nationalization in this sense, but it contributes to industrial nationalization in the sense of increasing the proportion of state-owned enterprises in industry. Property subject to nationalization includes land, underground reserves, forests, rivers, seas, lakes, and other assets, as well as companies in various industrial sectors and financial institutions. Nationalization can be broadly divided into capitalist nationalization and socialist nationalization.

[Yoshiaki Nishimura]

Capitalist Nationalization

Capitalist nationalization is carried out under capitalism with the aim of developing or maintaining the capitalist system, not with the aim of abolishing it and transitioning to a socialist system. However, if nationalization is carried out based on the demands of a wide range of citizens, including the working class, it can have the character of developing economic democracy under capitalism. Specific objectives of nationalization can include political, military, financial, and economic factors.

Examples of nationalization based on political or military requirements include the nationalization of railways for national unification, and the nationalization of military industries to strengthen the government's military power and protect military secrets. Nationalization based on financial factors is aimed at securing fiscal revenue, such as the salt monopoly. Examples of nationalization based on economic requirements include the following:

(1) Temporary nationalization to develop industry in underdeveloped capitalist countries, in which the state-owned enterprises are later sold to the private sector.

(2) Nationalization under state monopoly capitalism through the "bankruptcy rescue" model. An example of this is the nationalization of companies in the energy, steel, shipbuilding, and automobile industries that has taken place in the UK since the end of World War II and continues to this day.

(3) Nationalization for the purpose of securing employment for workers, improving their lives, promoting the people-oriented development of sectors with a high level of public interest, and encouraging workers to participate in corporate management. An example of this is the nationalization of the four major banks, insurance companies, electricity companies, gas companies, coal companies, and Renault automobiles, which was promoted by the reformist government led by the Socialist and Communist parties in France immediately after World War II.

In addition to the factors mentioned above, public sector services such as transportation, postal services, roads, ports, and medical care may be nationalized because of their importance as a basic infrastructure for life and therefore require state management. Capitalist nationalization is usually achieved by nationalizing through legislative measures in parliament, with financial compensation being paid to previous owners. In developing countries, nationalization may also include the need to nationalize foreign companies in order to achieve the economic independence of the nation, in addition to the purpose of developing industry.

[Yoshiaki Nishimura]

Socialist nationalization

Socialist nationalization is the transfer of a fundamental part of society's productive assets to the ownership of society and to the hands of the state, which represents society, with the aim of abolishing the capitalist system and transitioning to a socialist system after the working people, centered on the working class, have seized state power. Nationalization is based on legislative measures under a revolutionary government, but the specific methods and speed differ depending on the historical conditions of each country.

In the case of the Soviet Union, the October Revolution of 1917 gave birth to a Soviet government that considered the transition to socialism as its direct and practical task, and the difficult situation arose due to the intervention wars of the imperialist powers and the civil war with counter-revolutionary forces. Against this background, nationalization by confiscation without compensation was carried out on a large scale in a short period of time from 1918 to 1919. In Eastern European countries, after the Second World War, governments were established with the goal of abolishing the fascist ruling system and building a democratic state. As a result, German-capitalized companies and companies of capitalists who cooperated with fascism were confiscated without compensation, but other privately-capitalized companies were not nationalized at first. However, as the position of the Communist Party within the government strengthened, nationalization aimed at building socialism was promoted in earnest under its initiative towards the end of the 1940s. Compensation was adopted for nationalization, but in reality, compensation was often not paid. In East Germany, gradual nationalization was carried out, with private enterprises being transformed into semi-public and semi-private enterprises before being transformed into state-run enterprises. In China, apart from bureaucratic-capital enterprises, which were immediately confiscated without compensation, a gradual approach was also adopted, with ethnic capitalist enterprises first being transferred to public-private joint ventures, with the capitalists receiving profit distribution over the long term, and then being transformed into state-run enterprises. In countries where small commodity producers such as individual farmers were widespread, cooperatives were first organized through collectivization, and these were later nationalized, as seen in the transformation of kolkhoz into sovkhoz in the Soviet Union. In addition, between the establishment of a socialist government and the implementation of nationalization, "worker control" is often implemented, in which workers control the management of private enterprises by capitalists in order to maintain business activities and for workers to learn management.

By the way, the abolition of the private property system through nationalization creates the possibility of building socialism, but it does not guarantee its reality by itself. This is because, firstly, legal nationalization needs to be complemented by the organization of national economic management that is rational from the viewpoints of both efficiency and society, and the nationalization system itself needs to be reproduced and maintained through such economic activity. Secondly, if a democratic political system is not established, a gap will arise between the will of the state institutions and the will of society, and nationalization will bring about state bureaucratic control, which is different from social ownership. Therefore, the establishment of social ownership requires the development of a rational system of national economic management and a democratic political system. The workers' self-management experimented in Yugoslavia from the early 1950s was an attempt to denationalize economic management, reflecting the reflection that the long-term continuation of state ownership would bring about the omnipotence and control of state institutions. Moreover, Hungary's 1968 reforms were based on the view that nationalization that ignores the characteristics of industry and the size of companies does not guarantee economic efficiency, and therefore appropriate nationalization according to the level of development of productive forces is necessary. This view was aimed at correcting excessive nationalization and creating a mixed economy. Despite such explorations, modern socialism was unable to establish a rational system of nationalization and economic management, and ultimately collapsed. Moreover, even in capitalist countries that once promoted nationalization, inefficient state-owned enterprises are now being privatized.

[Yoshiaki Nishimura]

"Worker Control and Nationalization in Eastern Europe" edited by Hirata Shigeaki (1975, Institute of Developing Economies)" ▽ "Socialist Enterprise Theory" edited by Mori Akira (1977, Nippon Hyoronsha) ▽ "Modern Enterprises and the Issue of Nationalization" edited by Giga Soichiro (1978, Sekai Shoin)" ▽ "Ownership and Decision-Making in Modern Socialism" by Nishimura Yoshiaki (1986, Iwanami Shoten)"

[Reference] | Capitalist society | Socialist society | Private property system

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

私有財産をはじめとする非国有財産を国家の所有と管理に移すこと。国有企業の新規建設は、この意味での国有化ではないが、産業に占める国有企業の比重を高めるという意味での産業国有化に貢献する。国有化の対象となる財産には、土地、地下埋蔵物、森林、河海湖沼のほか、諸産業部門の企業、金融機関なども含まれる。国有化は資本主義的国有化と社会主義的国有化とに大別できる。

［西村可明］

資本主義的国有化

資本主義的国有化は、資本主義のもとで、資本主義体制の発展もしくは維持を目的として行われるものであり、その廃棄と社会主義体制への移行を目的とするものではない。ただし、国有化が、労働者階級をはじめとする広範な国民の要求に基づいて行われる場合、それは資本主義のもとでの経済民主主義の発展としての性格をもつことがありうる。国有化の具体的目的としては、政治的、軍事的、財政的、経済的諸要因などをあげることができる。

　政治的・軍事的要請に基づく国有化の例としては、国家統一のための鉄道の国有化、政府の軍事力強化や軍事機密保持のための軍需産業の国有化がある。財政的要因による国有化は、塩の専売事業のように、財政収入の確保を目的とするものである。経済的要請に基づく国有化には次のようなものがある。

(1)後進資本主義国における産業育成のための一時的国有化。この場合、国有企業はのちに民間に払い下げられる。

(2)国家独占資本主義のもとでの「破産企業救済型」の国有化。第二次世界大戦後近年に至るまでイギリスで行われてきた、エネルギー、鉄鋼、造船、自動車などの産業部門における企業の国有化がこれにあたる。

(3)労働者の雇用確保、生活改善、公共性の高い部門の国民本位の発展、企業管理への労働者の参加などを目的とする国有化。第二次世界大戦直後のフランスにおいて、社会党、共産党を中心とする革新政権によって推進された、四大銀行、保険会社、電力、ガス、石炭、ルノー自動車の国有化がその例である。

　上記の諸要因のほかに、運輸、郵便、道路、港湾、医療などの公共的分野では、基本的生活基盤の重要性から国家の管理運営が必要になるという理由で国有化される場合もある。資本主義的国有化の方法は、議会における立法措置により国有化し、前所有者には経済的補償を行うのが普通である。なお、発展途上国における国有化には、産業育成という目的のほかに、民族の経済的自立のための外国企業の国有化という要請が含まれることがある。

［西村可明］

社会主義的国有化

社会主義的国有化は、労働者階級を中心とする勤労人民が国家権力を掌握したのちに、資本主義体制を廃棄し、社会主義体制へ移行することを目的として、社会の生産財の基本部分を社会の所有に、社会を代表する機関としての国家の手に移すことである。国有化は革命政府のもとでの立法措置に基づくが、その具体的方法や速度は各国の歴史的条件によって異なる。

　ソ連の場合、1917年の十月革命によって社会主義への移行を直接の実践的任務とみなすソビエト政権が誕生したこと、帝国主義列強の干渉戦争や反革命勢力との内戦のため困難な情勢が生じたことなどを背景として、1918年から19年にかけての短期間のうちに、無償没収による国有化が大規模に行われた。東欧諸国では、第二次世界大戦後に、ファシズム支配体制の廃棄と民主的国家の建設を課題とする政権が誕生した結果、ドイツ資本の企業やファシズムに協力した資本家の企業は無償没収されることになったが、それ以外の私的資本の企業は当初国有化されなかった。しかしその後、政権内での共産党の地位が強化されるにつれ、そのイニシアティブのもとに、社会主義建設を目ざす国有化が1940年代末にかけて本格的に推進された。国有化に際しては有償主義が採用されたが、実際にはその代償が支払われない場合が多かった。東ドイツでは、私的企業が半官半民の企業を経て国営企業に転化されるという、漸進的国有化が行われた。中国でも、即時無償没収が適用された官僚資本企業は別として、民族資本家の企業は、まず公私共営企業に移され、資本家が利潤分配を長期にわたり受け、その後に国営企業に転化されるという漸進的方法がとられた。また個人農など小商品生産者が広範に存在した国では、たとえばソ連におけるコルホーズのソフホーズへの転化にみられるように、初めに集団化によって協同組合が組織され、のちにこれが国有化される場合もある。なお、社会主義政権が成立してから国有化が実施されるまでの間は、企業活動を維持し、また労働者が管理を学ぶために、私企業の資本家による経営管理を労働者が統制する「労働者統制」が実施されることが多い。

　ところで、国有化による私有財産制度の廃止は、社会主義建設の可能性をつくりだすが、それだけではその現実性を保証するものではない。というのは、第一に、法律上の国有化は、効率の観点からも社会的観点からも合理的な、国民経済管理の組織化によって補完される必要があり、国有制度自体がそのような経済活動を通じて再生産され維持される必要があるからである。第二に、民主的政治システムが確立されないならば、国家機関の意思と社会の意思との間に乖離(かいり)が生じ、国有化は社会的所有とは異なる国家官僚支配をもたらすからである。それゆえ、社会的所有の成立のためには合理的国民経済管理システムと民主的政治システムの発展が必要になる。ユーゴスラビアで1950年代初頭から実験された労働者自主管理は、国家的所有の長期的存続は国家機関の全能化と支配をもたらすという反省から、経済運営の非国家化を追求したものである。またハンガリーの1968年の改革は、産業の性格や企業規模を無視した国有化は経済効率を保証しないから、生産力の発展水準に応じた適切な国有化が必要だという見解に基づき、過度の国有化を是正し、混合経済化を目ざしたものであった。現代社会主義はこのような模索にもかかわらず、合理的な国有制度と経済管理制度の確立に成功せず、結局崩壊するに至ったといえよう。またかつて国有化を推進した資本主義諸国においても、非効率な国有企業の私有化が行われるようになっている。

［西村可明］

『平田重明編『東欧の労働者統制と国有化』（1975・アジア経済研究所）』▽『森章編『社会主義企業論』（1977・日本評論社）』▽『儀我壮一郎編『現代企業と国有化問題』（1978・世界書院）』▽『西村可明著『現代社会主義における所有と意思決定』（1986・岩波書店）』

[参照項目] | 資本主義社会 | 社会主義社会 | 私有財産制

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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