A war fought between Britain and China (Qing Dynasty) from 1840 to 1842. It marked the beginning of the semi-colonization of China. CauseSince the latter half of the 18th century, Britain, which had been promoting the Industrial Revolution, began to actively expand its market for trade with China, which had been limited to the port of Guangzhou. To this end, it aimed to increase the number of open ports and to break the foreign trade monopoly system of the Qing's officially approved merchants known as the Gonghang (13 Canton merchants). In 1793, it sent an envoy, Macartney, to negotiate, and then sent Amherst (1816) and Napier (1834) to try to realize this, but they were rejected. During that time, it tried to expand exports of industrial products such as woolen textiles, cotton textiles, and metals, but sales did not increase. On the other hand, as the custom of drinking tea (black tea) spread in the newly industrializing cities of Britain, imports of Chinese tea (black tea) increased dramatically. Combined with the import of native raw silk and ceramics, Britain's trade deficit was overwhelmingly large when it came to trade with China, and Britain had to export a large amount of silver to China. The British East India Company, which had been granted a monopoly on trade with China until 1834, implemented a monopoly on the planting and refining of opium in British India, which was given sovereignty by the British government, at the end of the 18th century, and sold it to adventurous private British merchants to smuggle it to China. Before 1776, only about 200 boxes (each box weighing about 60 kg) of Indian opium were exported to China as medicine every year, but in 1800, it was 2,000 boxes, and in 1830, about 20,000 boxes. In 1837, after the East India Company's monopoly on trade with China was abolished, 39,000 boxes of opium were exported to China, including those smuggled by American merchants, creating more than 2 million opium smokers. Since issuing the first ban in 1796, the Qing Dynasty repeatedly issued bans on the import of opium, but these were blocked by a thoroughly corrupt bureaucratic organization and ended up being ineffective. This opium trade brought the British Indian government huge revenues from opium taxes, which became essential for British rule in India. Opium revenues in India also enabled Britain to expand its exports of cotton products to India. Furthermore, the East India Company and later private merchants were able to obtain funds from opium to purchase tea, which led to an increase in Chinese tea imports, which brought huge revenues from tea taxes to the British government. Thus, opium smuggling to China became vitally important to British capitalism at the time. Meanwhile, in China, a large amount of silver flowed out of the country from the 1820s onwards (reaching at least 100 million dollars in the 40 years from 1821), causing the price of silver to soar, which had a devastating effect on the country's finances and economy. At the time, silver and copper were the currency used in China, and at the end of the 18th century, 700-800 copper coins could be exchanged for 1 ryo of silver, but by the 1830s, 1,600-1,700 mon were needed. For farmers and craftsmen who used copper coins on a daily basis but had to convert them into silver to pay taxes, the tax burden effectively increased, making tax collection difficult and the national treasury's reserves dwindling day by day. In addition, the spread of opium addiction within the military heightened the sense of crisis among the ruling class. In 1838, Emperor Daoguang pointed out this critical situation and dispatched Governor-General of Huguang (the local governor in charge of both Hunan and Hubei provinces), Lin Zexu, who advocated a strict ban on opium, as Imperial Commissioner (Minister Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary) to Guangzhou to strictly prohibit opium smuggling. When Lin arrived in Guangzhou in the spring of 1839, he took strong measures, such as suspending trade and surrounding trading houses with force, confiscating and burning over 20,000 chests of opium from British merchants. At the time, even within Britain, Quakers, the Church of England, and liberals in Parliament were all opposed to the opium trade and the war with China that was triggered by opium, for moral reasons as well as economic reasons that the opium trade would narrow the market for cotton products. However, trading capital involved in trade between India and China, including the major opium merchants Jardine Matheson & Co., strongly lobbied Foreign Secretary Palmerston to obtain compensation for the confiscated opium and to use this issue to secure "the conditions necessary to place trade with China on a stable basis." In April 1840, the British Parliament approved, by a margin of nine votes, the dispatch of an expeditionary force to China, which Gladstone called "a permanent embarrassment to Great Britain." [Shinji Kojima] ProgressIn the summer of 1840, when a British fleet of 48 ships and 4,000 soldiers marched north and threatened Dagu and Tianjin, the Qing dynasty ordered a ceasefire, dismissed Lin Zexu, who supported a war against all, and appointed Qishan, who supported compromise, as plenipotentiary to conduct peace negotiations in Guangzhou. However, the peace plan was not accepted by either the British government or the Qing dynasty, and the war resumed. The British army, suffering from the spread of cholera, sent about 10,000 soldiers from India in 1841 to invade the Yangtze River and approach Nanjing. With the exception of a few, the Qing army revealed its corruption and incompetence, and prohibited the purchase of modern weapons from European countries, as Lin Zexu had attempted to do in Guangdong, and the arming of peasants and fishermen under the leadership of local influential people to resist. Fearing that the loss of Nanjing would further undermine the authority of the Qing dynasty, the Qing accepted all of Britain's demands and concluded the Treaty of Nanjing in August 1842. During this time, tens of thousands of villagers in Sanyuanli, on the outskirts of Guangzhou, outraged by the violence of the British army, spontaneously launched an armed resistance against the British, and this movement is regarded as a precursor to the anti-invasion struggle in modern China. [Shinji Kojima] Results and SignificanceBy the Treaty of Nanking and the supplementary Treaty of the Five Ports (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai) Trade Regulations (1843) and the Additional Treaty of Humen Zhai (1843), China lost part of its territory (Hong Kong and the concession established in a section of the open ports), its tariff autonomy, and its judicial sovereignty (recognition of consular jurisdiction), was granted unilateral most-favored-nation status, paid a huge indemnity consisting of the cost of confiscated opium and military expenses, and allowed the missionary work of Christianity in the open ports. In 1844, France and the United States followed Britain's example and concluded unequal treaties, the Treaty of Huangpu and the Treaty of Wangxia, respectively. The Qing rulers did not recognize the epoch-making significance of these unequal treaties, but rather saw them as temporary appeasement measures for the "foreigners." However, these unequal treaties meant that China was permanently incorporated as a subordinate region into the developing capitalist world market. For the time being, traditional Chinese crafts still stubbornly resisted the expanding market for Lancashire cotton, and British exports of manufactured goods did not grow as expected. However, the opium trade, which was now effectively legalized, continued to develop and had a negative impact on the finances and economy. Combined with the pressure of heavy taxes to cover the indemnity (a total of approximately 19 million taels) and war costs (approximately 70 million taels; the Qing Dynasty's revenue at the time was approximately 37 million taels), and the loss of authority of the Qing Dynasty due to its disgraceful defeat, this eventually became a factor in the great unrest of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Before the Opium Wars, many Japanese samurai considered China to be the source of culture and a powerful country in the world. Even intellectuals such as Watanabe Kazan and Tokugawa Nariaki, who were keen on the issue of maritime defense, predicted that Britain and Russia would first take control of Japan and use it as a base, and then attack Qing. This crushing defeat of Qing came as a great shock to contemporary Japan. Many books on the Opium Wars were published, including "Haiguo Tuzhi" by Wei Yuan, a comrade of Lin Zexu who inherited and completed the study of Western affairs that Lin Zexu had started. The main reasons for the defeat of the Qing were that they had neglected to absorb the advantages of Western civilization, especially weapons, ships, and navigation, by regarding their own Confucian culture as absolute, and that they had allowed the proliferation of opium, and measures to avoid repeating those mistakes were actively discussed. [Shinji Kojima] "Nishi Junzo, Kojima Shinji, et al., eds., "Original Chinese Modern Intellectual History 1: From the Opium Wars to the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom" (1976, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Opium Wars by Chin Shunshin" (Chuko Shinsho) Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
1840~1842年、イギリスと中国(清(しん))との間に行われた戦争。中国の半植民地化の起点となった。 原因18世紀後半以来、産業革命を進めていたイギリスは、広州(こうしゅう/コワンチョウ)1港に限定して行われていた中国貿易に対しても、積極的に市場の拡大を図り始めた。そのため、開港場の増加、公行(コーホン)(広東(カントン)十三行)とよばれる清の官許の商人による外国貿易独占体制の打破を目ざし、1793年使節マカートニーを派遣して交渉させたのをはじめ、アマースト(1816)、ネーピア(1834)などを送ってその実現を図ったが、拒絶された。その間、初め毛織物、のち綿紡織品、金属などの工業製品の輸出拡大を図ったが売れ行きは伸びなかった。他方、イギリス国内の新興工業都市で飲茶(紅茶)の風習が広がったため、中国茶(紅茶)の輸入が激増し、在来の生糸、陶磁器輸入と相まって、こと中国貿易に関する限り、圧倒的にイギリスの入超で、多額の銀を中国へ輸出しなければならなかった。1834年まで中国貿易独占権を賦与されていたイギリス東インド会社は、本国政府から統治権を与えられていたイギリス領インドにおいて、18世紀末アヘンの植え付け、精製の専売制度を実行し、これを冒険的な民間のイギリス商人に売り渡して中国に密輸させた。1776年以前には毎年200箱(1箱の重さ約60キログラム)程度のインド産アヘンが医薬品として中国に輸出されていただけであったのが、1800年には2000箱、1830年になると約2万箱、東インド会社の中国貿易独占権が廃止されて以後の1837年には、アメリカ商人による密輸を含めて3万9000箱ものアヘンが中国に輸出され、200万人を超えるアヘン吸飲者がつくりだされた。清朝は1796年最初の禁令を発布して以来、再三アヘン輸入禁止令を発したが、腐敗しきった官僚機構に阻まれて無効に終わった。このアヘン貿易は、イギリス領インド政府に莫大(ばくだい)なアヘン税収入をもたらし、それはイギリスのインド支配にとって不可欠のものとなっていった。またインドにおけるアヘン収入が、イギリスのインドに対する綿製品輸出の拡大を可能にした。さらに東インド会社、のちに民間商人はアヘンによって茶の買付け資金を獲得でき、そのため中国茶の輸入が増加し、それがイギリス本国政府に莫大な茶税収入をもたらした。こうして中国へのアヘン密輸は、当時のイギリス資本主義にとって死活の重要性をもつに至ったのである。 一方、中国では、1820年代以降、多額の銀が国外に流出し(1821年から40年間に最低でも1億ドルに達した)、そのため銀価が騰貴して、財政、経済に破壊的な影響を及ぼした。当時、中国で通用していた貨幣は銀と銅で、18世紀末には銅銭700~800文で銀1両に交換できたが、1830年代には1600~1700文が必要になった。日常、銅銭を使用しながら、銀に換算して納税しなければならなかった農民や手工業者にとっては、実質的に税負担が増大し、収税は困難になり、国庫の蓄えは日増しに減少していった。加えて軍隊内でのアヘン中毒の広がりが支配層の危機感を高めた。1838年、道光帝はこれらの危機的状況を鋭く指摘して、アヘンの厳禁を主張した湖広総督(湖南(こなん/フーナン)、湖北(こほく/フーペイ)両省を統轄する地方長官)林則徐(りんそくじょ)を、欽差(きんさ)大臣(特命全権大臣)として広州に派遣し、アヘン密輸を厳禁する役目にあたらせることにした。1839年春、広州に到着した林は、貿易停止、武力による商館包囲など強硬手段をもって、イギリス商人から2万余箱のアヘンを没収、焼却した。当時イギリス国内でも、クェーカー教徒やイギリス国教会、また議会内のリベラル派などが、道徳的理由、ないしアヘン貿易が綿製品の市場を狭めるという経済的理由から、アヘン貿易、またアヘンを契機とする中国との戦争に反対していた。だが、大アヘン商人ジャーディン・マセソン商会をはじめ、インドと中国の貿易にかかわる貿易資本は、没収アヘンの賠償と、この問題を機に「対華貿易を安定した基礎のうえに置くのに必要な諸条件の獲得」を図るよう、強力にパーマストン外相に働きかけた。1840年4月イギリス議会は、9票差で「イギリスの永久の恥さらしとなるべき」(グラッドストーン)中国への遠征軍派遣を承認した。 [小島晋治] 経過1840年夏、48隻の艦船、4000人の兵員からなるイギリス艦隊が北上して大沽(タークー)、天津(てんしん/ティエンチン)を脅かすや、清朝はいったん休戦を命じ、徹底抗戦派の林則徐を罷免し、妥協派の琦善(きぜん)を全権として広州で講和交渉を行わせた。しかし和平草案はイギリス政府にも清朝にも受け入れられず、戦争が再開された。コレラの蔓延(まんえん)に苦しんだイギリス軍は、1841年インドから約1万余の兵を派遣して揚子江(ようすこう/ヤンツーチヤン)に侵入、南京(ナンキン)に迫った。一部を除いて清軍は腐敗、無能をさらけ出し、しかも林則徐が広東で試みようとしたように、ヨーロッパ諸国から近代兵器を購入することも、地方の有力者の指導下に農民、漁民などを武装させて抵抗することも禁止した。そして南京の失陥によって清朝の権威がさらに揺らぐことを恐れ、その直前にイギリスの全要求を受諾して南京条約を結んだ(1842年8月)。この間、広州郊外の三元里で、イギリス軍の暴行に憤激した数万の村民が自発的に反英武装抵抗を起こす動きもみられ、近代中国の反侵略闘争の先駆として評価されている。 [小島晋治] 結果と意義南京条約とこれを補足する「五港(広州、厦門(アモイ)、福州(ふくしゅう/フーチョウ)、寧波(ニンポー)、上海(シャンハイ))通商章程」(1843)ならびに「虎門寨(こもんさい)追加条約」(1843)によって、中国は領土の一部(香港(ホンコン)と開港場の一画に設けられた租界)と関税自主権、司法上の主権を失い(領事裁判権の承認)、片務的最恵国待遇を与え、没収アヘンの代価と軍事費を内容とする巨額の賠償金を支払い、開港場におけるキリスト教布教を認めることになった。続いて1844年フランス、アメリカも、イギリスに倣って、それぞれ黄埔(こうほ)条約、望廈(ぼうか)条約という不平等条約を結んだ。清朝支配者はこれらの不平等条約が時代を画する意義をもつことを認識せず、従来の「外夷」に対する一時的懐柔策と同じようなものとしか認識していなかった。だがこれらの不平等条約は、発展しつつあった資本主義の世界市場のなかに、中国が従属的な地域として恒常的に組み込まれたことを意味した。さしあたり中国では、伝統的な手工業がなおランカシャー綿布の市場拡大に頑強に抵抗し、イギリスの工業製品輸出は予期したほどは伸びなかった。 だが事実上合法化されたアヘン貿易は一段と発展して、財政、経済に悪影響を及ぼし、賠償金(計約1900万両)と戦費(約7000万両。当時の清朝の歳入は約3700万両)を賄うための重税の重圧と、ぶざまな敗戦による清朝の権威の失墜とが相まって、やがて太平天国の大動乱を引き起こす要因となった。 アヘン戦争前まで、日本の武士の多くは、中国を文化の源流であり、また世界の強大国とみなしていた。海防問題に鋭敏だった渡辺崋山(かざん)や徳川斉昭(なりあき)のような識者も、イギリスやロシアはまず日本を支配下において根拠地とし、ついで清国を攻めるだろうと予測していた。この清国の惨敗は、同時代の日本に大きな衝撃を与えた。林則徐の同志であり彼が創始した欧米事情の研究を継承、完成した魏源(ぎげん)の『海国図志』をはじめ、アヘン戦争に関する多くの書物が出版された。そして、固有の儒教文化を絶対視して欧米文明の長所、とくに兵器、艦船、航海術などの吸収を怠ったこと、アヘンの氾濫(はんらん)を許したことに清の敗戦の主因を求め、その失敗のあとを踏まぬための方策が活発に論議されるようになった。 [小島晋治] 『西順蔵・小島晋治他編『原典中国近代思想史1 アヘン戦争から太平天国まで』(1976・岩波書店)』▽『陳舜臣著『アヘン戦争』(中公新書)』 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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