Guild - gild (English spelling)

Japanese: ギルド - ぎるど（英語表記）gild 英語

In medieval Western Europe, a professional association was formed by self-employed people such as merchants and craftsmen in order to help each other in various aspects of life, based on the Christian spirit of fraternity. In the early merchants' guilds, not only merchants but also various craftsmen participated, but later, craft guilds were formed for each type of craftsman. Although guilds were usually formed voluntarily, the influence of city lords was also recognized. In German, they are also called zunft. In China, there were also associations of people of the same trade called kou (walking) and saku (making).

[Makoto Terao]

origin

Theories that trace the origin of the guild to local merchants and craftsmen's compulsory associations in the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, and to the Nordic brotherhood oath relationships, may be somewhat applicable to each region, but are not generally applicable. The manorial association theory, which states that craftsmen's associations under manorial law in rural areas were transplanted to cities, is also not well supported. As the feudal society of medieval Europe was established, medieval cities were established and developed as territorial communities with fewer blood ties. While the city authorities, the public authority of these communities, gradually acquired the power of self-governance from the feudal lords, merchants and craftsmen spontaneously formed friendly mutual aid associations for the purpose of protecting their patriarchal household management both materially and spiritually. It was a status-based professional association unique to medieval cities. The existence of oath associations was already confirmed in laws from the Carolingian period. The formation of such associations was considered a danger to the Frankish state. However, it was not until the 11th century, when the establishment of medieval cities began, that guilds began to be formed in earnest.

In England, there are laws relating to fraternal organizations in three cities, including Cambridge, in the first half of the 11th century. In France, guilds of craftsmen existed in Paris, Rouen, and Chartres by the start of the 12th century, and in Germany, there are records of them in Mainz at the end of the 11th century, and in Worms, Würzburg, and Cologne at the start of the 12th century. Guilds were also formed in Northern Europe, Southern Europe, and Eastern Europe, reaching their heyday from the 13th century onwards. Chronologically, merchant guilds were the first to emerge, and later professional guilds for each type of occupation were established.

[Makoto Terao]

Merchant Guild

Since medieval cities were stimulated by trade between regions, the first guilds were formed to monopolize the external trade of each city. They were organizations to avoid competition with outsiders and those who did not belong to the guild, due to the commercial monopoly guaranteed by the king or nobles. Merchants who traded with distant lands joined the guilds, but also retailers and craftsmen. However, the latter gradually became independent and formed their own guilds, but in transitional periods they sometimes belonged to both merchant guilds and same-skill guilds. As the city's handicrafts flourished, the same-skill guilds became independent, and the merchant guilds lost the influence they once boasted. Even retailers formed their own guilds. Merchant guilds were most prevalent in England, but not so much on the European continent.

[Makoto Terao]

Guild of the Same Occupation

The 14th and 15th centuries were the golden age of urban craftsmen, and guilds of each trade (craft guilds) were formed. They aimed to protect the economic interests of craftsmen, who were based on the hierarchy of masters, artisans, and apprentices, and to support each other in their social and religious lives. The most important economic policy was to protect craftsmen not only from external competition, but also from competition among themselves. The oath that each member swore to abide by when joining included detailed regulations on techniques, working hours, product prices, wages, etc., restrictions on the means of production and the number of workers in the workplace, quality inspections, and systems for training craftsmen and apprentices, and the city authorities granted the guilds the authority to try and punish violations of these regulations. Although the relationship with the city authorities varied from one to another, in places where urban aristocrats such as merchants were powerful, a zunft revolution was attempted in the 14th century through solidarity between guilds of the same trade, and in some cases this led to a change in the city authorities. In parallel with this, due to the shrinking market caused by the population decline in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the master class, who had full membership rights in the same craft guild, implemented measures such as extending the apprenticeship period, raising the requirements for the master's prototype masterpiece required for craftsmen to become qualified to become masters, and raising the guild membership fee that had to be paid when becoming a master. As a result, craftsmen gradually formed associations for the purpose of mutual assistance and protection of economic interests to counter this. Such craftsmen's organizations are also called "craftsmen's guilds."

The old merchant guilds also divided into general goods merchants, wool merchants, dry goods merchants, wine merchants, retailers, oil merchants, salt merchants, etc., and the artisan guilds also divided into many types, such as bakers, fishmongers, butchers, millers, fruit merchants, shoemakers, blacksmiths, tanners, tailors, joiners, carpenters, masons, plasterers, wheelwrights, shipwrights, barbers, bathers, goldsmiths, painters, transporters, gardeners, grape growers, wine brewers, brewers, etc. In addition, there is also a division into religious and secular guilds.

[Makoto Terao]

Organization and business

Only the masters, who were the heads of household management in the class system, had full membership rights, and these rights were valid only with the approval of the other members and the oath of those who wanted to join. In later times, the number of masters was limited, and it became more difficult to obtain a master's license. However, the craftsmen employed by the masters and the apprentices trained there were also placed under the guild system, and not only their working conditions but also their social and religious lives were regulated by the guild. The same was true for the families of the masters, craftsmen, and apprentices.

The guild elected officers such as elders, councilors, and butlers to carry out its business, but also held regular meetings of its membership to elect officers, revise the terms of the oath, approve new members, and discuss mutual assistance such as weddings, funerals, etc. In addition to the membership fee, members had to pay annual membership fees and candles for worship. In addition to mutual assistance for illness, death, and misfortune of fellow members, guild members also engaged in a variety of activities, such as charity for non-members, donations to various facilities in the city, and banquets for members.

[Makoto Terao]

History since the early modern period

Not all cities organized guilds. In small rural towns and market towns that were established in the latter half of the Middle Ages to compete with medieval cities, merchants and craftsmen often did not form guilds. They opposed the monopoly policies that the guilds forced city authorities to implement, which prohibited or restricted commerce and industry in the surrounding rural areas, and instead aimed for a newer market economy with free competition. The background to this was that the craftsmen in rural cities had more advanced techniques, including the use of water wheels, compared to the traditional techniques of the masters who were guild members. In addition, in the 16th century and after, the mercantilist policies of the absolute monarchy tried to incorporate these more free craft management outside of guild regulations into the medieval market and guild system, but in the 17th and 18th centuries, the influence of the urban guilds declined.

However, this process differed from country to country. Although it was finally abolished in the first half of the 19th century, the free economy of the rural areas quickly became overwhelming in England, while in France the policies of the absolute monarchy were effective to a certain extent, and the abolition of freedom of trade and the guild system was decided at the end of the 18th century with the French Revolution. In Germany, the influence of medieval cities was strongest, and it was not until 1869 that freedom of trade was established nationwide, bringing an end to the long history of the guild system.

[Makoto Terao]

"Western Economic History" by Shohei Takamura (1971, Yuhikaku) "Study of Medieval Western Cities and Guilds" by Sakae Ito (1968, Kobundo)

[Reference item] | Line | Creation | Apprenticeship system

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

西ヨーロッパの中世において、商人や手工業者などの自営業者が、キリスト教の友愛精神に基づき、生活のさまざまな面で相互に助け合うために結成した身分的な職業団体である。初期の商人組合の場合は、商人だけではなく、各種の手工業者も参加していたが、のちになって同種の手工業者ごとに同職組合が結成される。自発的な団体結成が普通であるが、都市の領主の影響力も認められる。ドイツ語ではツンフトともいう。なお、中国にも行(こう)や作(さく)とよばれる同業者の団体があった。

［寺尾　誠］

起源

ローマ帝国やビザンティン帝国の地域的な商人、手工業者の強制団体に起源を求める説、北欧の義兄弟誓約関係の説などは、それぞれの地域には多少妥当しても、一般的には当てはまらない。また荘園(しょうえん)団体説のように、農村における荘園法の下での手工業者団体が都市に移植されたという説もあまり支持されていない。中世ヨーロッパの封建社会が整えられていくなかで、血縁的要素の、より少ない地縁的共同体として、中世都市が成立、発展する。その共同体の公権力である都市当局が、封建領主から自治の権力を徐々に獲得していく一方、商人や手工業者が自らの家父長的家政経営を物心両面で守る目的で、友愛的な相互扶助団体を自発的に結成したのである。それは中世都市に固有な身分的職業団体である。すでにカロリング時代の法令に誓約団体の存在が確認されている。それらの団体形成はフランク国家への危険とみなされていた。だが本格的にギルドが結成されていくのは、中世都市の成立が始まる11世紀以降である。

　イギリスでは11世紀前半にケンブリッジなど3都市の友愛団体に関する法令がある。フランスでは12世紀に入ると、パリ、ルーアン、シャルトルに手工業者のギルドが存在しているし、ドイツでも11世紀末にマインツ、12世紀に入るとウォルムス、ウュルツブルク、ケルンに記録がある。そのほか北欧、南欧、東欧にもギルドの結成はみられ、13世紀以降ギルドの全盛時代を迎えた。時期的にみて先行したのは、商人ギルドで、のちに各職種別の同職ギルドが成立していく。

［寺尾　誠］

商人ギルド

中世都市は各地方の間の交易に刺激されておこってきたから、最初に結成されたギルドは、それぞれの都市の対外的な交易の独占のためのものであった。国王や諸侯によって保証された商業の独占営業権により、他所者(よそもの)やギルドに属さぬ者との競争を避けるための団体であった。そこには遠隔地との商業を営む商人たちが加盟したが、それ以外に小売商人や手工業者も加わっている。ただし、後者はしだいに独立して同職ギルドを結成していくが、過渡期には商人ギルドと同職ギルドの両方に加盟していたこともある。そのうち都市の手工業が繁栄するにつれ、同職ギルドが独立した意味をもち、商人ギルドがかつて誇った勢力を失っていく。また小売商人さえ独自のギルドを結成するに至る。商人ギルドが盛んであったのはイギリスで、ヨーロッパ大陸はそれほどではない。

［寺尾　誠］

同職ギルド

14、15世紀は都市手工業者の黄金時代として各職種別のギルド（工匠(クラフト)ギルド）が結成された。それは親方、職人、徒弟という身分制の手工業経営の経済的利害を守るとともに、それらの人々の社会生活、宗教生活の相互扶助をも目的としていた。もっとも重要な経済政策は、手工業者を外部からの競争からだけではなく、仲間同士のそれからも守るためのものであった。各成員が加盟にあたり守ることを誓う誓約条項には、技術や労働時間、製品価格や賃金などの規定、仕事場における生産手段や従事者の数の制限、品質検査、職人・徒弟の修業のための制度などが詳しく盛られ、それへの違反に対しては裁判や処罰の権限が都市当局によりギルドに認められていた。なお都市当局との関係は個々に異なるが、商人などの都市貴族が有力な勢力であるところでは、14世紀に同職ギルドの連帯によるツンフト革命が試みられ、場合によると都市当局の交代が実現した。また、これと並行して、中世後半の人口減少による市場の縮小のため、同職ギルドの完全成員権をもつ親方層が、徒弟期間の延長や職人が親方になる資格を得るための親方試作品masterpieceの要求の引上げ、親方になるときに支払わなければならぬギルド加盟金の値上げを実施した。このため職人たちはしだいに相互扶助や経済的利害の防衛を目的として結社をつくって対抗した。こうした職人団体は「職人ギルド」ともよばれる。

　古い商人ギルドも、雑貨商、毛織物商、呉服商、ぶどう酒商、小売商、油商、塩商などに分化し、同職（工匠）ギルドも、パン屋、魚屋、肉屋、粉屋、果実商、靴屋、鍛冶(かじ)屋、皮革業者、仕立屋、指物師、大工、石工、左官、車大工、船大工、床屋、風呂(ふろ)屋、金細工師、画工、運送屋、園芸師、ブドウ栽培業者、ぶどう酒醸造業者、ビール醸造業者など多種の分化を遂げる。そのほか、宗教的ギルドと世俗的ギルドの分け方もある。

［寺尾　誠］

組織と事業

完全な成員権をもつのは、身分制の家政経営の長である親方層であり、それも加盟成員の承認と加盟希望者の誓約により効力あるものとされる。後世になると親方数が制限されたり、親方資格の入手が困難にされた。ただし親方に雇用されている職人やそこで教育されている徒弟も、ギルド制度の下に置かれており、彼らの労働条件はもちろん、社会生活、宗教生活もギルドに規制されていた。親方、職人、徒弟の家族も同様である。

　なおギルドは、長老や参審員、執事などの役員を選出し、事業の遂行を任せたが、成員権をもつ者の集会を定期的に開き、役員の選出のほか、誓約条項の改正、新規加盟の承認、冠婚葬祭などの相互扶助を審議する。なお、成員は加盟金以外に年々の会費や礼拝用のろうそくなどを納入しなければならない。仲間の病気、死亡、不幸などに対しての相互扶助はもちろん、ギルド成員以外の者への慈善、都市のさまざまな施設への寄付、成員の宴会など、多様な活動が行われた。

［寺尾　誠］

近世以降の歴史

すべての都市にギルドが組織されたわけではない。中世の後半以来中世都市に対抗して成立していった農村の小都市や市場町においては、商人も手工業者もギルドを結成しない場合が多い。彼らは、ギルドが都市当局に周辺の農村での商工業を禁止したり制限する独占政策をとらせたのに反対し、むしろ自由に競争しあう形で、より新しい市場経済を志向したからである。この背景には、ギルド成員の親方たちの伝統的な技術に対し、農村都市の手工業者たちの技術は水車の利用をはじめとする、より進んだものだったことがある。なお、16世紀以降に絶対王政の重商主義政策のなかで、これらのより自由な、ギルド規制の外にたつ手工業経営を、中世的な市場やギルドの制度に組み込もうと試みられたが、それにもかかわらず、17、18世紀と都市のギルドの影響力は衰えていった。

　ただし、この過程は国々により異なる。最終的には19世紀前半に廃止されたとはいえ、農村の側の自由な経済がいち早く圧倒していったイギリスに対し、フランスでは絶対王政の政策がある程度効力をもたらし、18世紀末のフランス革命で、営業の自由とギルド制の廃止が決定された。ドイツは中世都市の影響力がもっとも強く、1869年ようやく全国的な営業の自由の確立によって、ギルド制の長い歴史が終わった。

［寺尾　誠］

『高村象平著『西洋経済史』（1971・有斐閣）』▽『伊藤榮著『西洋中世都市とギルドの研究』（1968・弘文堂）』

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