Peddler - Gyosho

Japanese: 行商 - ぎょうしょう

A business method in which goods are carried around and sold. There are cases where the producers themselves sell their products, and cases where goods are purchased from producers and sold, but strictly speaking, this refers to the latter case, and such merchants are called peddlers. There are also small-scale, short-distance sales and large-scale, long-distance sales, the former are called haiuri, shuriuri, and botefuri, and the latter are called peddlers. Peddlers are the opposite of seated sales and are generally long-distance sales. With peddlers, peddlers bring goods to consumers, but with seated sales, consumers must go to the seated salesman to buy the goods. Historically, seated sales should be considered to have arisen after peddlers. There are two types of seated sales: city sales (ichiakinai) and store sales (miseakinai), with the former beginning earlier than the latter. Records show that peddlers and city sales existed as early as the 6th century in ancient times, and store sales began in the 12th century, at the end of ancient times. Moreover, there were two types of peddlers. One involves going directly to consumers to sell products, and the other involves traveling around to markets established in various locations.

From ancient times to the Middle Ages, the salesmen and women known as hisagibito and hisagime were also peddlers, so to speak. They sold items they had collected themselves or produced, and some women, such as Oharame, would come from Ohara, on the outskirts of Kyoto, to sell firewood, and some women came from Omi (Shiga Prefecture) to sell fish. It is said that in the 12th century, there were many "country pilgrims" in Kyoto (The Tales of Ise), and these were also peddlers. Peddlers often traveled in groups. A water bank merchant from Kyoto who traveled to and from the mercury mines in Nyu (Taki County) in Ise (Mie Prefecture) loaded 100 horses with silk, thread, cotton, rice, etc., had one child-servant drive the horses, and was accompanied by a cook. One day, he was attacked by about 80 bandits in the Suzuka mountains (Konjaku Monogatarishu 29-36). As seen in the legend of Kaneuri Kichiji (Gikeiki), there was a gold dust peddler who aimed for gold dust in Mutsu (Iwate Prefecture). He brought textiles and furniture from Kyoto to exchange for gold dust. At that time, the leader of a certain group of merchants who traded and bought various Chinese and domestic goods from Mutsu (Aomori Prefecture) to Kikaigashima (Kagoshima Prefecture), spending his years in Hakuho and his days and nights in Sonyu, looked just like a traveling merchant ("Shin Sarugakuki").

From the 13th century to the Middle Ages, there were many peddlers who traveled between cities. They would bring products from central cities to the provinces and purchase agricultural products and raw materials from the provinces, a practice known as "kyodari." The oil merchants of Oyamazaki (Kyoto Prefecture) are one example of this. In the late Middle Ages of the 15th century, peddler groups were formed in Omi, Ise, and other places, and they actively participated in the distribution of goods. One caravan had over 100 baggage carriers, 60-70 guards, and countless packhorses (Shoho Toyushu). Those who carried the goods used rendazaku (a pair of saddlebags) and sendabitsu (a pair of chests), and were therefore also called rendazaku merchants and sendabitsu merchants. Peddling by ship also became popular, and developed into the shipping industry. The horse-drawn carriages were called bashaku (horse-drawn carriages) and cart-drawn carriages were called shashaku (cart-drawn carriages). Bashaku, shashaku, and kaisen also became peddlers. The balance pole was used for short distances.

In the 17th century, the distribution system for goods was organized into a wholesaler-middleman-retailer system, and long-distance sales were no longer mainstream, except for door-to-door sales and short-distance peddling. Among them, the Omi merchants and the Toyama medicine peddlers were representative peddlers. The Omi merchants were merchants from Hachiman, Hino, and Goka-no-sho in Omi, who traveled around selling souvenirs and exchanged local products nationwide. Their predecessors are said to be the 15th century Ashiko merchants. In the mid-modern 18th century, they began to place more emphasis on opening stores than on peddling, and they established themselves in the three major cities, Matsumae in Hokkaido, and Kyushu, and some of them began to expand into handicrafts, fishing, and finance in addition to commerce. From the 18th century, Toyama medicine peddlers initially handled a variety of products on the Japan Sea coast, but gradually limited themselves to selling medicines and spread nationwide. This was a kind of credit sales method, whereby the seller would put some medicines in a medicine bag or medicine box in advance and deposit them, and then settle the previous year's amount when they came out to sell the following year. The Toyama domain also supported this system, and it was very popular.

In modern times, the role of peddlers has declined due to major changes in social and economic conditions. It is no longer possible for peddlers to transport large quantities of goods, and the price difference between distant locations is small. However, as distribution systems have become more complex and intermediate costs from production to consumption have become large, peddlers remain in the form of producers selling directly to consumers. Medicine sales in Toyama continue to exist, and the old model of male and female sellers still exists when necessary.

[Motoo Endo]

Western

In the West, too, the role of peddlers has changed over time. In the early Middle Ages (9th to 11th centuries), cities were underdeveloped, so merchants did not settle in fixed locations. They traveled around places such as the mansions of feudal lords and churches to buy and sell goods. There were peddlers who traveled around limited areas, and itinerant merchant groups that conducted large-scale trade over a wide area across various countries. The relationship between the two was fluid, as exemplified by the merchant known as St. Godric of Finkle. Born to a poor farmer in Lincolnshire, England, this man started out as a casual peddler, but gradually accumulated wealth, formed a merchants' guild, and succeeded in coastal trade with England and Northern Europe by ship, earning him great wealth. As medieval cities were established and developed (12th to 13th centuries), merchants began to settle in cities. Medieval cities in the West institutionalized buying and selling in markets. There were two types of markets: weekly markets, which were held regularly every week, and annual markets (large markets), which were held regularly every year. The weekly markets were primarily intended to limit trade between city residents and residents of surrounding rural areas to a specific area within the city gates, and did not allow surrounding residents to trade on their own, forcing them to trade in the city market and prohibiting them from doing business anywhere else. The weekly markets were the nodes of national and international commerce that went beyond the region and beyond, and wholesale merchants were very active in the weekly markets, but they cannot be considered peddlers. General goods merchants who traveled between small and medium-sized cities were somewhat closer to peddlers. Overall, there was no room for peddlers during this period. In the late Middle Ages, the relationship between cities and rural areas changed. Industrial locations moved, and the industrialization of rural areas began. As a result, new peddlers appeared who dealt in industrial products and sold various goods to people working in industry. There was no market system like in medieval cities, and they traded freely, pioneering the freedom of business in modern capitalism. Wholesalers and manufacturing managers were also born from these markets. In response, medieval cities criticized peddlers as disruptive and tried to regulate them in cooperation with absolute monarchies, but the effectiveness of these efforts varied from country to country. In the modern industrial age, the systems of medieval cities collapsed and the role of peddlers decreased under the freedom of business, but in some places they still remain.

[Makoto Terao]

"History of Japanese Commerce" by Kanno Kazutaro (1930, Nippon Hyoronsha) ▽ "History of Japanese Merchants" by Toyoda Takeshi (1949, Tokyodo Publishing) ▽ "Omi Merchants" by Egashira Tsuneharu (1959, Kobundo) ▽ "Selling Women" by Segawa Kiyoko (1971, Miraisha)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

商品を持ち歩いて販売する商法。生産者自身がその生産品を販売する場合と生産者から買い集めた物を販売する場合とがあるが、厳密には後者の場合をいい、そうした商人を行商人といった。それに近距離・小規模のものと、大規模・遠距離のものとがあったが、前者は呼び売り、振り売り、棒手振(ぼてふ)りといい、後者を行商といった。行商は座商に相対するもので一般に遠距離のものである。行商は、行商人が消費者の所へ商品をもってくるものであるが、座商は、消費者が商品を買いに座商人の所へ行かなくてはならない。歴史的には、行商に続いて座商が生まれたとすべきである。その座商には市商(いちあきない)と店商(みせあきない)とがあるが、前者が後者より早く始まった。記録では、古代の6世紀に行商と市商の事実がみられるし、店商は古代末期の12世紀からである。しかも行商には二つの形態があった。一つは直接に消費者のもとへ行って商品を販売するものと、もう一つは各地に成立した市を回るものである。

　古代から中世にかけての販夫(ひさぎびと)・販女(ひさぎめ)もいわば行商であった。自他の採集品や生産品を販売するのであるが、大原女(おはらめ)などは京の郊外の大原(おおはら)から京の町へ薪(たきぎ)を売りにき、近江(おうみ)（滋賀県）から魚を京へ売りにくる女性もあった。12世紀に「田舎(いなか)わたらい」（『伊勢(いせ)物語』）する人が京に多かったというが、これも行商である。行商人は多く集団で行動した。伊勢（三重県）の丹生(にゅう)（多気郡）の水銀(みずがね)鉱山へ往復していた京のある水銀行商人は、馬100頭に絹、糸、綿、米などを積み、小童部(こわらわべ)1人に馬を追わせ、炊事婦たちを連れていたが、あるとき鈴鹿(すずか)山中で80人ばかりの盗賊にあったという（『今昔(こんじゃく)物語集』29の36）。金売吉次(かねうりきちじ)の伝承（『義経記(ぎけいき)』）にみられるように陸奥(むつ)（岩手県）の砂金を目標とした砂金行商人がいた。京から織物や調度を持って行って砂金と交換するのである。そのころ、陸奥（青森県）から鬼界ヶ島（鹿児島県）にかけて、いろいろな唐物(からもの)や本朝（国産）の物を交易・売買し、泊浦(はくほ)で年月を送り、村邑(そんゆう)で日夜を過ごしているという、ある商人の首領はまさに行商人の姿であった（『新猿楽記(さるがくき)』）。

　13世紀からの中世では、市の間を巡回する行商が多くなった。中央都市の生産品を地方に持って行き、地方の農産物や原料を仕入れるといういわゆる京下りである。大山崎（京都府）の油商人はこうした一例である。15世紀の中世後期には、近江・伊勢などに行商人集団が結成されて、積極的に商品の流通に参加している。ある隊商は荷物運搬人100余人、護衛60～70人、駄馬無数であったという（『小補東遊集(しょうほとうゆうしゅう)』）。荷を担ぐものは連雀(れんじゃく)・千朶櫃(せんだびつ)を利用したので、連雀商人・千朶櫃商人ともいわれた。また、船による行商も盛んで、廻船(かいせん)として発展していった。駄馬によるものは馬借(ばしゃく)、荷車を利用するものは車借(しゃしゃく)といった業者を成立させ、馬借、車借、廻船も行商を担当するようにもなった。天秤棒(てんびんぼう)は近距離に使われた。

　17世紀の近世になると、商品の流通機構は、問屋―仲買―小売りといったものに整備されて、振り売りや近距離の行商は別として、遠距離のものはもはや主流ではなくなった。そのなかで近江商人と富山売薬商人などは代表的な行商である。近江商人は近江の八幡(はちまん)、日野(ひの)、五箇庄(ごかのしょう)出身の商人で、土産(どさん)の商品を持ち回り、地方の産物を全国的に交流させたもので、15世紀の足子(あしこ)商人集団が前身とされる。18世紀の近世中期では行商より出店(でみせ)のほうに重点を置くようになり、三都をはじめ主要都市、北海道松前や九州などにも定着するようになり、商業だけでなく、手工業・漁業・金融業にも手を広げる者が出てきた。富山の売薬行商人は18世紀から、初め日本海側で、いろいろな商品を取り扱っていたが、しだいに売薬に限るようになり全国的に広げていった。まえもっていくつかの薬剤を薬袋か薬箱に入れて預けておき、翌年の行商のときに前年の清算をするという配置売薬で、一種の掛け売りであった。富山藩もこれを保護していて非常な盛況であった。

　近代では、社会・経済事情の大きな変化によって、行商の役割は低下した。もはや、行商では大量の商品輸送はむずかしく、隔地間の商品価格差もわずかとなっている。しかし、流通機構が複雑になり、生産から消費までの中間経費が大きくなるために、生産者が直接に消費者に販売するという形の行商は残った。富山の売薬はまだ続いており、かつての販夫・販女といった形のものも、なお必要に応じて行われている。

［遠藤元男］

西洋

西洋でも行商は時代により、役目が変化している。中世の初期（9～11世紀）には都市が未発達であったため、商人は定住していなかった。彼らは諸侯の館(やかた)や教会の所在地などを遍歴して歩き、商品を売買していた。その人々には、限られた地域を歩き回る行商人と、各国にわたる広範囲で大規模な取引をする遍歴商人団体とがあった。両者の関係は流動的で、フィンクルの聖ゴドリックとよばれた商人にその例がみられる。イギリスのリンカーンシャーの貧農の子として生まれたこの男は、最初はにわか仕立ての行商として出発したが、しだいに富を蓄え、商人組合をつくり、船でイギリスや北欧の沿海貿易に成功、巨富を得たのであった。中世都市が成立、発展してくると（12～13世紀）、商人は都市に定住するようになる。西洋の中世都市は、市場での売買を制度化した。毎週定期的に開かれる週市と毎年定期的に開かれる歳市（大市）の二つである。週市はおもに、都市住民と周辺農村の住民の間の取引を、都市城門内の特定地域での市場に限定することをねらったもので、周辺の住民がかってに取引することを許さず、都市市場への強制、それ以外での商売を禁制した。歳市は、地方やその範囲を越えた、国家的、国際的な商業の結節点であり、歳市の間では卸売商人が大いに活躍したが、これを行商人とみなすわけにはいかない。中小都市の間を往来した雑貨商がやや行商に近い存在であった。全体としてこの時期は行商の余地はなかったのである。中世後期には、都市と農村の関係が変化した。工業立地が移動し、農村の工業化が始まる。それに伴い工業製品を扱ったり、工業に従事する人々に種々の商品を売る、新しい行商人が現れた。そこには中世都市のような市場制度がなく、彼らは自由な取引を行い、近代資本主義の営業の自由を先駆的に実現した。そこから問屋やマニュファクチュア経営者も生まれた。これに対し中世都市は攪乱(かくらん)者という非難を浴びせ、絶対王政と組んで規制しようとしたが、その効果は国により異なる。近代の工業化時代には、中世都市の制度が崩れ、営業の自由の下に行商の役割は減ったが、一部にはなお残っている。

［寺尾　誠］

『菅野和太郎著『日本商業史』（1930・日本評論社）』▽『豊田武著『日本商人史』（1949・東京堂出版）』▽『江頭恒治著『近江商人』（1959・弘文堂）』▽『瀬川清子著『販女』（1971・未来社）』

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