Aristocrat - Kizok

Japanese: 貴族 - きぞく

A group that is socially and traditionally recognized as having exceptionally high political or legal privileges and honors in a society. On the one hand, they tend to be strongly linked to the idea of lineage, and are naturally recognized by both themselves and others as a so-called "noble lineage," and this status is usually hereditary. This is why those who are newly granted the status of nobility are often looked down upon by the general public as "upstarts" compared to "born nobles." On the other hand, nobility often presupposes the existence of political or religious authority. Historically, there has been constant change within the aristocracy, especially since new nobles are created by the royal power. In modern civil society, nobility has not disappeared, but it has usually lost its influence.

[Masami Watanabe]

Europe

Greek patricians (eupatridai) were lineage aristocrats believed to be the descendants of kings and their entourage in the legendary age. In the example of Athens, they monopolized the consulship and senate seats, and formed the main force of the military as cavalry or charioteers, but lost their status with the development of democratic politics. Roman patricians (patrici) were the descendants of those who constituted the ruling clans and tribes in the semi-legendary age, and were distinguished from commoners (plebeians) who had no family register. Until the middle of the Republican period, patricians were the de facto rulers of Rome, and until 445 BC, when the status struggle intensified, they were prohibited from intermarrying with commoners. However, the traditional aristocracy was greatly attrited, and from about 50 clans in the 5th century BC to 22 clans and 81 families in the mid-4th century BC, and 14 clans and 30 families at the end of the Republic, most of the aristocrats in the Imperial period were new large landowners appointed by the emperor as senators. Knights (equites) were the next highest rank, but they were not normally called nobles.

After the migration of the peoples, two lines of nobility existed in Gaul. One was the Roman senatorial nobility, a very distinctive group that was not only the largest landowners, but also had influence on church administration and maintained classical culture to the end. A typical example is Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 430-c. 486), who wrote the final page of Latin literary history. The other was the Germanic bloodline nobility, and the Bavarian Tribal Code, for example, lists five clans in addition to the family of the archduke, and stipulates that freemen receive "double honor" and "double the life money." Both lines eventually dissolved into medieval nobility.

The Carolingian Empire unified the major parts of the continent and established local officials. Offices and districts such as Duke, Herzog (Prince), Marquis, Margraf (Margrave), Comte, and Graf (Count) were turned into fiefs and made hereditary, and the families who owned these fiefs and used their former official titles as titles formed the top stratum of the medieval nobility.

Regarding England, Rudolph, author of the 9th century "The Transubstantiation of St. Alexander," wrote that there were four types of people living there: "nobles, freemen, freedmen, and slaves," and that nobles carefully avoided intermarrying with those of lower rank. The nobles at this stage were thought to have been blood nobles, as in other Germanic tribes. After the Norman Conquest, the customs of the continent were introduced, but the hierarchy of nobles was determined by their relationship with the king and whether they were direct vassals or subordinate vassals.

In the Middle Ages, landowners were generally considered to be nobles, but the lower limit, boundaries, and status qualifications were not always clear. This became an issue in the late Middle Ages, during the period of absolute monarchy, when the royal authority monopolized the right to recognize noble status. Thus nobility based on papers appeared. Under the old system (Ancien Régime), the "nobility of the robes" were new aristocrats who grew up among the bourgeoisie, while the traditional nobility were called "nobility of the sword."

[Masami Watanabe]

China

During the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the Sui and Tang dynasties of China, aristocrats played leading roles in all aspects of politics, society, and culture, creating a system known as an aristocratic society. These aristocrats originated from the so-called pure current forces that were formed in opposition to the so-called muddy current forces centered on the eunuchs at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, and families that carried the hopes of society gradually became established as aristocratic clans. There were various ranks of aristocratic clans, with the Wang family of Langya and the Xie family of Chen commandery, both of which were well-known throughout the country, as the first line. In addition to repeated intermarriage between families of comparable rank, throughout the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties period, the system of appointment of officials, in which appropriate government posts were given according to family rank rather than individual ability, known as the "Nine Ranks of Officials Law" was implemented. The politics of the time could truly be called a system of consultation between the emperor and the nobles. In the Jin dynasty, the phrase "the king, the horse, and the world together" meant a joint government between the Wang family, who represented the nobles, and the Sima family of the Jin royal family. In the Tang dynasty, too, of the three ministries that made up the central government, Zhongshu, Menxia, and Shangshu, Menxia was given the authority to check the will of the emperor, and became a stronghold of the nobles' power. Among the nobles, there were unique rules, including the determination of family status, that even the emperor could not do anything about, and the noble families continued to survive regardless of the repeated rise and fall of dynasties. This stability allowed the nobles to pursue and enjoy highly refined lifestyles and culture.

However, in the 6th century, the Six Palaces Rebellion in the Northern Dynasties and the Hou Jing Rebellion in the Southern Dynasties brought unprecedented destabilization to the stability of aristocratic society, and when the Imperial Examination System was introduced to replace the Nine Ranks of Officials Law during the Sui and Tang dynasties, aristocrats who failed to respond appropriately could not avoid their downfall. The Anshi Rebellion in the mid-8th century and the Huang Chao Rebellion in the late 9th century completely wiped out the aristocratic families, and the scholar-officials society of the Song Dynasty, centered around the Imperial Examination bureaucracy, was established.

[Tadao Yoshikawa]

Japan

Refers to the upper echelon of Ritsuryo government officials. In the Ritsuryo code, those of rank 3 or higher were called Ki, and those of rank 4 or 5 were called Tsuki, and together they were considered aristocrats. Among them, the Minister, Nagon, Councillor, and those of rank 3 or higher were called Kugyo or Kandachime, and those of rank 4 or 5 who were allowed to enter the palace were called Tenjobito. They were given various privileges, including the system of Onshi and Kageson, and there was a clear gap between them and government officials of rank 6 or lower. The indicator of the establishment of aristocracy was when ancient powerful clans left their home towns and became city dwellers living in the capital, and became government officials serving in government offices in the imperial palace. For this to happen, the system of government offices = government officials and the establishment of a salary system were necessary. Historically, it can be said that they emerged from the end of the 7th century to the beginning of the 8th century, during the period from Fujiwara-kyo to Heijo-kyo. The number of government officials rose to 8,000-9,000, but fewer than 100 of them were aristocrats, and even during the Heian period when their numbers increased, they never exceeded 150. The core of these were the descendants of old families from the pre-Taika period, but in the early Heian period, the Fujiwara clan (especially the Northern House), which seized power by excluding other clans and through blood ties to the imperial family, rose to prominence, and the Fujiwara clan even became synonymous with aristocracy. As a result, the gap between aristocrats grew and became fixed, and they differentiated into powerful and humble families. It was also during the mid-Heian period that the middle and lower-class aristocrats, the Zuryo class, who held successive local government positions, were formed.

The nobility were supposed to have no connection to land ownership, as their salary was called "substitute farming allowance," and in fact there was a tendency among the upper classes of nobility to avoid owning land in the countryside and getting involved in industry. However, as national finances relaxed, they increasingly received donations of land from middle and lower-ranking nobles and local powerful clans (so-called donated land manors). As a result, in the late Heian period, the regent family became the two major manor lords (honjo) alongside the imperial family, and small and medium-sized nobles and government officials were incorporated under their umbrella. During the heyday of aristocratic politics, literature and art based on Japanese aesthetics developed, and in particular, women's literature developed in relation to the political structure, which rose and fell along with the nobility.

The aristocracy lost their political power in the Middle Ages as the samurai class rose to power and established political power. From the Middle Ages onwards, the term kuge (meaning emperor or imperial court) became common in contrast to the samurai class. During this period, the government offices they served virtually disappeared, and in the Edo period they gathered around the Kyoto Imperial Palace to form kuge towns. After the Meiji period, the kuge were absorbed into the nobility, but after World War II, the nobility system was abolished and they disappeared.

[Murai Yasuhiko]

"Kuramoto Kazuhiro, Sekkan Politics and Imperial Aristocracy (2000, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Masuda Shigeo, The Tale of Genji and Aristocratic Society (2002, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Michael L. Bush, translated by Sashi Akihiro and Sashi Tamae, European Aristocracy: Its Privileges in History (2002, Tosui Shobo)" ▽ "Shibakawa Osamu, A Study of Greek Aristocracy (2003, Koyo Shobo)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一つの社会において、格段に高い政治的ないし法的な特権と栄誉をもつことを社会的かつ伝統的に承認された集団。一面において血統の観念と強く結び付く傾向があり、いわゆる「貴種」として自他ともに認められるのが本来的なあり方で、その地位は世襲されるのが普通である。新たに貴族の地位を与えられた者が「成り上がり貴族」として、「生まれながらの貴族」に比して、ややもすれば民衆からも軽んぜられるのはそのためである。他面において貴族は、政治的あるいは宗教的権威の存在を前提とすることが多い。とくに王権によって新貴族が創出されるため、歴史的には貴族層内部に絶えず交代が生じた。近代市民社会では、貴族は消滅したわけではないにしても、影響力を失うのが普通である。

［渡辺昌美］

ヨーロッパ

ギリシアの貴族（エウパトリダイeupatridai）は、伝説の時代の王やその側近の子孫と信じられた血統貴族で、アテナイ（アテネ）の例のように執政官職や元老院の議席を独占し、騎兵ないし戦車兵として軍事の主力を形成したが、民主政治の展開につれて地位を失った。ローマの貴族（パトリキ）は、なかば伝説の時代に支配的な氏族や部族を構成した者たちの子孫で、族籍をもたない平民（プレブス）と区別された。共和政期のなかばまで貴族は実質的にローマの支配者で、身分闘争が高揚する紀元前445年までは平民との通婚も禁止されていた。しかし伝統貴族の損耗はかなり激しく、前5世紀におよそ50氏族いたものが、前4世紀なかばには22氏族81家門、共和政末には14氏族30家門となり、帝政期の貴族はほとんどが皇帝によって元老院議員に登用された新興の大土地所有者である。なお騎士（エクィテスequites）はこれに次ぐ身分であるが、普通、貴族とはいわない。

　民族移動後のガリアには2系列の貴族が存在した。一つはローマ系のセナトリアル貴族で、第一級の大土地所有者であるばかりでなく、多くは教会行政に影響力を有し古典的教養を最後まで持ち伝えた、甚だ特徴的な集団である。ラテン文学史の最終ページを飾るシドニウス・アポリナリスSidonius Apollinaris（430ころ―486ころ）にその典型をみる。いま一つはゲルマン系の血統貴族で、たとえば『バイエルン部族法典』は、大公の一族のほかに5氏族の名をあげ、自由人の「2倍の栄誉」「2倍の人命金」を定めている。両系列ともやがて中世的貴族のなかに解消する。

　カロリング帝国は大陸の主要部分を統一して地方官を配置した。デュクduc、ヘルツォークHerzog（公）、マルキmarquis、マルクグラーフMarkgraf（辺境伯）、コントcomte、グラーフGraf（伯）などの官職と管区が知行(ちぎょう)化、世襲化するとともに、これら知行地を領有し、かつての官職を称号として用いる家系が中世貴族の最上層を形成した。

　イギリスについては、9世紀『聖アレクサンダー移葬記』の著者ルドルフが「貴族、自由人、解放奴隷、奴隷」の4種類の人間が住み、貴族は劣位の者との婚姻を慎重に避ける、と記している。この段階の貴族は、他のゲルマン系諸族と同じく血統貴族であったと考えられる。ノルマン・コンクェスト以後、大陸の慣行が導入されたが、ここで貴族序列を決定したのは、王との関係、直臣か陪臣かの関係であった。

　中世において、一般に土地領主は貴族であったと考えられたが、その下限、境界、身分資格はかならずしも明確でない。それが問題化するのは、王権が貴族身分の認定権を独占した中世末期、絶対王政期である。こうして証書による貴族が登場する。旧制度（アンシャン・レジーム）下の「法服(ローブ)の貴族」はブルジョアのなかから成長した新貴族で、これに対し伝統貴族を「剣(エペ)の貴族」とよんだ。

［渡辺昌美］

中国

中国の魏晋(ぎしん)南北朝および隋(ずい)・唐の時代には、貴族が政治、社会、文化のあらゆる面にわたって主導的役割を果たし、貴族制社会とよばれる体制をつくりあげた。これら貴族は、後漢(ごかん)末の宦官(かんがん)を中心とするいわゆる濁流勢力に対抗して形成されたいわゆる清流勢力に起源をもち、社会の与望を担った家柄がしだいに門閥貴族として固定化した。門閥貴族には天下の全体に名の知られた琅邪(ろうや)の王氏や陳郡の謝氏などを第一流とするさまざまの家格が存在し、家格のつりあった家どうしで通婚が繰り返されたほか、魏晋南北朝時代を通じて、個人の能力ではなしに家格に応じてしかるべき官職が与えられる官吏任用法、すなわち「九品官人法(きゅうひんかんじんほう)」が行われたのである。当時の政治はまさしく天子と貴族の合議制とよぶべきものであった。晋代に行われた「王と馬と天下を共にす」ということばは、貴族の代表である王氏と晋の王室の司馬氏との共同政権との意味であり、唐代においても、中央政府を構成する中書、門下、尚書の三省のうち、門下省は天子の意志をチェックする権限を与えられ、貴族勢力の牙城(がじょう)となった。貴族たちの間には、家格の決定をはじめとして、天子たりとていかんともしがたい独自のルールが存在し、しかも興亡を繰り返す王朝とは無関係に門閥は延命を続けた。こうした安定のうえに、貴族は高度に洗練された生活と文化を追求し享受しえたのである。

　しかし、6世紀、北朝においては六鎮(りくちん)の乱が、南朝においては侯景(こうけい)の乱が貴族社会の安定にかつてない動揺をもたらし、さらに隋・唐時代に至って九品官人法にかわる科挙制度が開始されると、しかるべき対応に失敗した貴族は没落を免れなかった。そして8世紀中葉の安史(あんし)の乱、9世紀末葉の黄巣(こうそう)の乱によって門閥貴族は完全に消滅し、科挙官僚を中心とする宋(そう)代の士大夫(したいふ)社会が準備されるに至った。

［吉川忠夫］

日本

律令(りつりょう)官人の上層部をいう。律令の規定では三位(さんみ)以上を貴、四、五位者を通貴(つうき)といい、あわせて貴族とされた。このうち大臣、納言(なごん)、参議および三位以上を公卿(くぎょう)とか上達部(かんだちめ)といい、昇殿を許された四、五位者を殿上人(てんじょうびと)とよんだ。蔭子(おんし)・蔭孫の制をはじめ諸種の特権を与えられ、六位以下の官人との間には明確な格差があった。古代豪族が本籍地を離れて京師に集住する都市民となり、宮城にある官司へ出仕する官人になることが、貴族成立の指標で、そのためには官司＝官人制度や給与制度の整備が要件であった。歴史的には7世紀の末から8世紀の初め、藤原京から平城京の時代にかけて出現したといえる。官人の数は8000～9000人に上ったが、そのうち貴族は100人以下で、増加した平安時代でも150人を超えることはなかった。その中核は大化前代以来の旧族の子孫であったが、平安初期に至り、他氏排斥や皇室との血縁関係を通じて政権を掌握した藤原氏（とくに北家(ほっけ)）が卓越し、藤原氏が貴族の同義語とさえなった。それに伴い、貴族間に格差の増大と固定が進み、権門と寒門に分化した。地方官を歴任する中下級貴族＝受領(ずりょう)層が形成されたのも平安中期である。

　貴族は、給与が「代耕の禄(ろく)」といわれたように、土地所有と無縁であることをたてまえとし、事実、上層貴族の間には田舎(いなか)（地方）に所領をもち産業にかかわることを忌避する風潮があったが、国家財政の弛緩(しかん)に伴い、中下級貴族や地方豪族から所領の寄進を受けることが多くなった（いわゆる寄進地系荘園(しょうえん)）。その結果、平安後期には摂関(せっかん)家が皇室と並ぶ二大荘園領主（本所(ほんじょ)）となり、中小貴族・官人はその傘下に組み込まれた。貴族政治の盛期には、日本的な美意識に基づく文学や芸術が発展したが、ことに政治の構造にかかわって女房(にょうぼう)文学が展開、これは貴族と消長をともにした。

　貴族は、武家勢力が台頭し政権を樹立するに及び、中世には政治権力を喪失する。そこで中世以降は武家に対比する意味もあって公家(くげ)（公家は天皇あるいは朝廷の意）の称が一般化した。この時期には仕えるべき官司も事実上消滅し、江戸時代には京都御所の周辺に集住して公家町を形成した。公家は明治以後華族(かぞく)に吸収されたが、第二次世界大戦後、華族制度が廃止され、消滅した。

［村井康彦］

『倉本一宏著『摂関政治と王朝貴族』（2000・吉川弘文館）』▽『増田繁夫著『源氏物語と貴族社会』（2002・吉川弘文館）』▽『マイケル・L・ブッシュ著、指昭博・指珠恵訳『ヨーロッパの貴族――歴史に見るその特権』（2002・刀水書房）』▽『芝川治著『ギリシア「貴族政」論』（2003・晃洋書房）』