Revolution - Kakumei (English spelling) revolution

Japanese: 革命 - かくめい(英語表記)revolution
Revolution - Kakumei (English spelling) revolution

In a broad sense, it means a sudden change in things from one state to another, and in a narrow sense, it means a political revolution accompanied by a qualitative transformation of state power. Revolution in the modern sense comes from the Latin word revolutio (meaning rotation, or by extension, change). The Japanese word "revolution" is a Confucian term (meaning "the will of heaven is renewed" or "Ekisei Revolution") based on the Chinese "I Ching" (Book of Changes) "Tangwu Revolution, Suntian, Er Ou Ren" (Reforming the will of Tangwu, obeying the heavens and responding to the people), and has been established as a translation of revolution since the Meiji period. In a broad sense, it is used to refer to fundamental changes in historical events and rapid changes in everyday life, such as the industrial revolution, science and technology revolution, energy revolution, electronics revolution, and information revolution, and is also used in examples such as the distribution revolution caused by the emergence of supermarkets, and the leisure revolution caused by the shortening of working hours and the spread of private automobiles.

Political revolution, as a revolution in the narrow sense, if it is thorough, can spread to major changes in all areas of society, including the economy, legal systems, culture, religion, academia, art, language, customs, and habits (social revolution), so it is often used in terms such as economic revolution, cultural revolution, and human revolution. Burnham's managerial revolution theory, which argues that capitalism changed in capitalist society when functional capitalists (corporate managers) took on a dominant role instead of capital owners, incorporates the meaning of economic revolution, and China's Cultural Revolution was an attempt to artificially carry out the ideological transformation of the people (=human revolution) under a socialist society as its own revolutionary task. However, these terms extend the implication of political revolution to other areas of society, and should be considered intermediate between the broad and narrow senses.

[Tetsuro Kato]

Political Revolution

Revolution in the narrow sense means a qualitative change in state power, but if we consider it simply as a sudden change in political leaders or leadership groups, it becomes synonymous with the successful overthrow of a political system backed by physical force, and can be distinguished from failed examples such as "rebellion," "treason," "riot," and "uprising," but it includes "coup d'état" and the metaphorical "palace revolution," which is not appropriate. A qualitative change in state power should not be limited to a simple change in the person in charge or group, but should be understood as a fundamental change in the socio-economic interests held by the person in charge or group, or, equivalently, as a sudden change in the social and political power relations that accompanies not only the change in the monarch or ruler who is the head of power, but also a complete reorganization of the state apparatus.

Marxist revolutionary theory provides a precise analytical framework by basing the qualitative transformation of state power on the change in class characteristics. In other words, the qualitative transformation of state power is the transfer of state power from one class to another, based on the contradiction between productive forces and production relations (property relations), and this political revolution is the beginning of a social revolution, which means a total transformation of the economy, society, and ideology, and is an indicator of the transition of social structures. In this sense, it is broadly divided into bourgeois-democratic revolutions, which are a transfer of power from the feudal ruling class to the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and an indicator of the transition from feudal society to capitalist society, and proletarian socialist revolutions, which imply a transfer of power from the bourgeoisie to the working class (proletariat) and a transformation from capitalism to socialism (historical examples include the Great French Revolution of 1789 as a typical example of the former, and the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia as the latter). Similarly, a shift of hegemony from one class faction within the ruling class to another, accompanied by a complete reorganization of the state apparatus (for example, the shift of hegemony from the landed aristocracy to the financial bourgeoisie in the July Revolution of 1830 in France, and the shift from the financial bourgeoisie to the industrial bourgeoisie in the February Revolution of 1848 in France), can also be considered a political revolution. In contrast, a sudden but simple change of the person in charge of power within the same class or class faction is a coup d'état or palace revolution, while rebellions, riots, and uprisings can be the beginning or background of a political revolution, but they are forms of resistance that do not lead to a shift in the balance of power at the power or at the core of power. There was some discussion of the Eastern European Revolution in 1989 and the collapse of Soviet socialism in 1991 as "counter-revolutions," but in light of the subsequent dissolution of communist parties and the reintroduction of capitalist markets, the view that they were "civil revolutions" and "democratic revolutions" became dominant.

[Tetsuro Kato]

Revolutionary History

According to research by P. Calvert, the concept of revolution originated in ancient Egypt and has historically been given connotations such as (1) a challenge to authority, (2) the overthrow of a ruler, (3) social disintegration, (4) a reaction against the abuse of authority, (5) constitutional change, (6) social reorganization, (7) an inevitable stage of development, (8) an eternal attribute of an ideal order, and (9) a psychological outlet. However, if we start from the above definition of political revolution as a qualitative transformation of state power, important examples of modern revolutions include the Puritan Revolution in England (1640-60), the Glorious Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775-83), the French Revolution (1789-99), the July Revolution (1830), the February Revolution (1848), the March Revolution in Berlin and Vienna in Germany (1848), the November Revolution (1918), the First Russian Revolution (1905), the February Revolution (1917), the October Revolution (1917), China's Xinhai Revolution (1911), the Chinese Revolution (1949, founding of the People's Republic of China), the Turkish Revolution (1922), the Spanish Republican Revolution (1931), the Cuban Revolution (1961, Socialist Manifesto), the Iranian Revolution (1979), the Eastern European Revolutions (1989), and the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991). From a macroscopic perspective, modern revolutions have historically undergone a transformation from the stage of bourgeois democratic revolution, which ushered in a transition from feudalism to capitalism, to the stage of socialist revolution, which signified a transition from capitalism to socialism, but since the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989, existing socialism has been recapitalized. The English Puritan Revolution and the Great French Revolution are considered typical examples of bourgeois democratic revolutions, while the Russian October Revolution has been considered a typical example of socialist revolutions. However, these revolutions that are treated as typical were not one-off revolutions that fundamentally overturned the old political order and created a new political and social order, as can be seen from examples such as the Restoration of the monarchy and the Glorious Revolution in England, the development of the Thermidorian Reaction and the Napoleonic Empire in the French Revolution into the July Revolution and the February Revolution, the First Revolution of 1905 in Russia, the February Revolution of 1917 preceding the October Revolution, the Prague Spring of 1968 in Eastern European revolutions, and the existence of the Solidarity movement in Poland in 1980. Furthermore, although revolutions in a country are triggered by factors inherent in that nation's society, they also unfold in the context of international connections with other nations and influence revolutions in other countries, as can be seen from examples such as the international influence of the French Revolution, the outbreak of the 1848 Revolution on a European scale, the October Russian Revolution and the November German Revolution that arose during World War I, and the chain of revolutions in Eastern Europe in 1989.The development of capitalism as a global market, the internationalization of 20th century politics, and the globalization of information through television and the Internet particularly highlight the importance of international connections between revolutions and the transfer of power due to external triggers such as world war.

[Tetsuro Kato]

Causes of the Revolution and the Political Process

Marxist revolutionary theory seeks its cause in the contradiction between the productive forces and the relations of production in the economic structure of society. "At a certain stage in their development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production within which they have been operating up until that point, or with the property relations, which are merely their legal expression. These relations are transformed from forms of development of the productive forces into their fetters. At that moment, the period of social revolution begins. With the change in the economic foundation, the entire gigantic superstructure is transformed, either gradually or suddenly" (Marx's Preface to "Critique of Political Economy"). However, this only describes the basis or background of conflict and strife between classes and class factions, and concrete political revolutions are brought about in conjunction with drastic changes and reorganizations of alliances and coalitions and divisions and conflicts between political forces. Lenin presented the conditions for political revolution as a "revolutionary situation," and listed three requirements: (1) the inability of the ruling classes to maintain their rule in the same way as before. Various crises in the upper classes and in the policies of the ruling classes create cracks that lead to an explosion of discontent and rage among the oppressed classes. For a revolution to occur, it is not enough that the "lower classes" simply "do not want" to continue living as before. It is also necessary that the "upper classes" are "unable" to continue living as before. (2) the deprivation and poverty of the oppressed classes becomes more severe than usual. (3) the above factors lead to a marked increase in the activities of the masses. These conditions apply to most of the historical experiences of modern revolutions, and in particular the political upheaval caused by foreign wars, the unrest of the people, and the confusion caused by defeat in war were favorable conditions for the formation of a "revolutionary situation."

However, although "revolutionary circumstances" often constitute the objective conditions for political revolution, they can also lead to anarchy and counter-revolution, and for these objective conditions to lead to political revolution, the subjective conditions and the formation and leadership of political forces oriented towards change are crucial. In revolutionary circumstances, political forces with class and class-based interests usually split into (1) radicals who want to thoroughly carry out the revolution, (2) conservative reactionaries who want to maintain and restore the old system, and (3) moderates who want to limit the revolution to compromises and concessions. The Jacobins of the French Revolution and the Bolsheviks of the Russian Revolution are typical examples of radicals, and the outcome of the revolution is largely determined by how well the radicals appeal to the masses of the people, including the moderates, about the necessity and legitimacy of the revolution, how well they can sustain the political energy of the masses, and how well they can maintain hegemonic leadership even at the decisive moment. The November Revolution in Germany is an example of a situation in which radicals such as the Spartacists were unable to assert their leadership, resulting in compromised reforms by moderate parties such as the Social Democrats.

Even after the establishment of revolutionary power, the danger of counter-revolution by conservative reactionaries remains, while radicals tend to go too far by losing sight of the changes in the balance of political power and the degree of political maturity of the masses, as seen in the Jacobins during the French Revolution and Lenin's "War Communism." The level of hegemony and leadership of the political forces that seize revolutionary power is best reflected in the extent to which they can carry out the reorganization of the state apparatus. The focus here is on issues such as how to dismantle the old military and police forces and ensure the stability of the new order, how to reorganize the foundations for the development of productive forces such as land reform and industrial control and nationalization, and what legal and representative systems will be used to guarantee the legitimacy of the new revolutionary power.

From a macroscopic perspective, a political revolution can be seen as a change in the class character of state power that can bring about a shift in the social structure, but in terms of the political process, it can be seen as a dramatic reorganization of the alliances and rivalries among political forces that represent various class and class-factional interests, and as the hegemony and level of leadership of the revolutionary forces being concentrated in the reorganization of the state apparatus.

[Tetsuro Kato]

Types and forms of revolution

The two classical types of Marxism, bourgeois democratic revolution and proletarian socialist revolution, are meaningful in cases such as the English Revolution, the Great French Revolution, and the Russian Revolution, which marked the turning point of the social structure transition, but when considering the experience of modern historical revolutions and the nature of modern revolutions, a different perspective is necessary. Neither the English Puritan Revolution nor the Great French Revolution immediately led to the removal of the landed aristocracy from political control or the establishment of a democratic parliament and representative government based on universal suffrage. The Russian October Revolution is also positioned as a forced transformation of the February Revolution, which was a bourgeois democratic revolution, into a socialist revolution, but Russia at that time was overwhelmingly a peasant country, and the "dictatorship of the proletariat" established by the socialist revolution had a class alliance character, specifically called the "dictatorship of the workers and peasants." The 1979 Iranian Revolution had the character of a religious revolution opposed to "modernization," and the 1989 Eastern European Revolution was an "anti-communist revolution" in which workers and citizens sought freedom and democracy.

In the first place, the proletariat and peasants have played a part in the opposition to feudal rule as allies of the bourgeoisie even in bourgeois democratic revolutions, and a socialist revolution led only by the proletariat as productive manual laborers has never existed historically, and is unlikely to exist in the future (this is also related to what the working class concept means). The typology of bourgeois democratic revolution and proletarian socialist revolution means a macro-change in the socio-economic order (the nature of the social construct) that occurs on the border of a political revolution. Moreover, the world-historical development of modern capitalism and the historical experience of various revolutions have, on the one hand, experienced bourgeoisification without a thorough political revolution (the "revolution from above" in late capitalist countries such as Germany and Japan), and, on the other hand, new revolutionary types that do not necessarily fit the traditional typology, such as the people's democratic revolutions in Eastern European countries, which were mainly anti-fascist and established with the assistance of the Soviet Union, and the new democratic revolution in China, which was based on an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal national united front. The historical course of revolution, which was thought to spread from the West to the East, was vaguely based on the experience of modern Western Europe, and the diagram of a chain of revolutions among various ethnic groups and nations, such as "revolution in one country and world revolution," "national revolution and class revolution," and "revolution in advanced countries, revolution in middle-developed countries, and revolution in underdeveloped countries," has been forced to be theoretically reconsidered by the emergence of the Iranian Revolution, in which Islamic fundamentalists resisted "modernization," and the "democratic revolution" in Eastern Europe, which destroyed existing socialism. As for the characteristics of the "revolutionary situation" and the specific form of revolution, in light of the experience of the gradual "revolution from above" and "passive revolution" in underdeveloped capitalist countries, the types of "violent revolution and peaceful revolution" that finally became widely accepted after World War II, as well as "anti-passive revolution," "positional warfare revolution," and "revolution by agreement," the various conditions and subject formation of a long-term "revolution from below," the relationship between revolution and reform or improvement, the relationship between political revolution and economic revolution/cultural revolution, and the "permanent revolution of democracy" as described by Maruyama Masao, have become contemporary issues. The experience of the chain of revolutions in Eastern Europe in 1989, which succeeded the Czechoslovakian "Prague Spring" of 1968 and the Polish "Solidarity" movement of 1980-81, calls for a new concept of revolution from the perspective of the formation of democratic political subjects, rather than as a transfer of power between classes or class factions.

[Tetsuro Kato]

"The Civil War in France by Marx, translated by Murata Yoichi (Otsuki Shoten, Kokumin Bunko)""The State and Revolution by Lenin, translated by Utaka Motosuke (Iwanami Bunko)""Anatomy of Revolution by C. Brinton, translated by Oka Yoshitake and Shinohara Hajime (1952, Iwanami Shoten)""Revolution by P. Calvert, translated by Tanaka Haruo (1977, Fukumura Publishing)""The Theory of Revolution in Developed Countries by Ueda Koichi (1973, Otsuki Shoten)""On Revolution by Hannah Arendt, translated by Shimizu Hayao (1975, Chuokoron-Shinsha)""The Genealogy of Modern Revolutions by J. Dunn, translated by Miyajima Naoki (1978, Chuo University Press)" ▽ "Eastern European Revolutions and Socialism by Kato Tetsuro (1990, Kadensha)"

[References] | Social revolution | Socialist revolution | World revolution | Revolution in developed countries | Counter-revolution | Bourgeois revolution | Proletarian revolution | Peaceful revolution | Violent revolution

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

広義には、事物のある状態から他の状態への急激な変化一般を意味し、狭義には、国家権力の質的転換を伴う政治革命を意味する。近代的意味での革命revolutionは、ラテン語のrevolutio(回転、転じて変動を意味する)に由来し、日本語の「革命」は、中国の『易経』に「湯武革命、順天、而応乎人」(湯武命を革(あらた)むるや、天に順(したが)い、人に応ず)に依拠した儒教上のことば(「天命があらたまる」の意、易姓(えきせい)革命)で、明治以降、revolutionの訳語として定着した。広義の用法としては、産業革命、科学技術革命、エネルギー革命、エレクトロニクス革命、情報革命など、歴史的な事象の根本的変化や日常生活の広く急激な状況変動をさすものとして用いられており、スーパーマーケットの出現による流通革命、労働時間短縮と自家用自動車の普及に伴うレジャー革命などの用例にも転用されている。

 狭義の革命としての政治革命も、それが徹底的なものであるならば、経済、法制度、文化、宗教、学問、芸術、言語、風俗、習慣などあらゆる社会領域での大変動へと波及しうるため(社会革命)、経済革命、文化革命、人間革命といった用法もしばしば使われている。資本主義社会において、資本所有者にかわり機能資本家=株式会社経営者が支配的役割を果たすことにより資本主義は変質したとするバーナムの経営者革命論は、経済革命の意味を込めたものであり、社会主義社会のもとでの人民の思想的変革(=人間革命)を独自の革命課題として設定し人為的に遂行しようと企図したのが中国の文化大革命であった。しかしこれらは、政治革命の含意を他の社会領域に拡大し適用したものであり、広義と狭義との中間的な用法というべきである。

[加藤哲郎]

政治革命

狭義の革命とは、国家権力の質的転換を意味するが、これを単なる政治指導者ないし指導グループの急激な交代としてみる場合には、物理的強力を背景とした政治体制の成功的転覆と同義となり、「反乱」「反逆」「暴動」「一揆(いっき)」などの失敗例とは区別しうるが、「クーデター」や比喩(ひゆ)的用法である「宮廷革命」までが含まれてきて、適切ではない。国家権力の質的転換とは、単なる政権担当者ないしグループの交代にとどまるものではなく、政権担当者ないしグループが担っている社会経済的利害関係の根本的変化を意味するものであること、ないしはこれに準じて、権力の頭部である君主や執政者の交代ばかりでなく国家諸装置の全面的再編成をも伴う社会的政治的勢力関係の急激な変動、として理解さるべきであろう。

 マルクス主義の革命理論は、この国家権力の質的転換の基礎に階級的性格の変化を据えることにより、精緻(せいち)な分析枠組みを提供している。すなわち、国家権力の質的転換とは、生産力と生産関係(所有諸関係)との矛盾に根拠をもつある階級から他の階級への国家権力の移行であり、この政治革命は、経済・社会・イデオロギーの全体的変革を意味する社会革命の端緒となり、社会構成体の移行の指標となる。この意味では、封建的支配階級から資本家階級(ブルジョアジー)への権力の移行であり封建社会から資本主義社会への移行の指標となるブルジョア民主主義革命と、ブルジョアジーから労働者階級(プロレタリアート)への権力移行と資本主義から社会主義への転化を含意するプロレタリア社会主義革命とに大別される(歴史的事例としては、前者の典型としての1789年フランス大革命、後者としての1917年ロシア十月革命)。また、これに準じて、支配階級内部でのある階級分派から他の階級分派への国家諸装置の全面的再編を伴うヘゲモニーの移動(たとえば、1830年フランス七月革命における土地貴族から金融ブルジョアジーへのヘゲモニー移動、1848年フランス二月革命での金融ブルジョアジーから産業ブルジョアジーへの移動)をも政治革命とみなすことができる。これに対して、同一階級ないし階級分派内での急激ではあるが単なる政権担当者の交代がクーデターないし宮廷革命であり、反乱、暴動、一揆などは、政治革命の端緒ないし背景となりうるとはいえ、権力ないし権力核での力関係移動に至らぬ抵抗諸形態となる。1989年の東欧革命、91年のソ連社会主義の崩壊にあたっては、一部にこれを「反革命」とする議論があったが、その後の共産主義政党の解体、資本主義的市場の再導入に照らして、「市民革命」「民主主義革命」とする見解が支配的であった。

[加藤哲郎]

革命の歴史

P・カルバートの研究によれば、革命の概念は古代エジプトに起源をもち、(1)権威への挑戦、(2)支配者の打倒、(3)社会的解体、(4)権威濫用に対する反動、(5)憲法上の変化、(6)社会の再組織化、(7)発展の不可避的段階、(8)理想的秩序の永遠の属性、(9)心理的はけ口、といった含意を歴史的に付与されてきたという。しかし、国家権力の質的転換としての政治革命についての先の規定にたつならば、近代における諸革命、イギリスのピューリタン革命(1640~60)、名誉革命(1688)、アメリカの独立革命(1775~83)、フランス大革命(1789~99)、七月革命(1830)、二月革命(1848)、ドイツのベルリン・ウィーン三月革命(1848)、十一月革命(1918)、ロシアの第一革命(1905)、二月革命(1917)、十月革命(1917)、中国の辛亥(しんがい)革命(1911)、中国革命(1949、建国)、トルコ革命(1922)、スペイン共和革命(1931)、キューバ革命(1961、社会主義宣言)、イラン革命(1979)、東欧革命(1989)、ソ連解体(1991)などが、重要な事例となる。近代諸革命は、巨視的にみると、封建制から資本主義への移行を導いたブルジョア民主主義革命の段階から、資本主義から社会主義への移行を意味する社会主義革命の段階へと歴史的に転化してきたが、1989年東欧革命以後、現存社会主義の再資本主義化がおこった。ブルジョア民主主義革命の典型とされるのが、イギリスのピューリタン革命やフランス大革命であり、社会主義革命は、ロシア十月革命が典型的なものとされてきた。しかし、典型として扱われるこれらの革命も、1回きりの革命で旧来の政治的秩序を根底的に覆し新しい政治的社会的秩序をつくりあげたものではないことは、イギリスにおける王政復古と名誉革命、フランス大革命でのテルミドールの反動とナポレオン帝政から七月革命、二月革命への展開、ロシアにおける1905年の第一革命、17年二月革命の十月革命への先行、東欧革命における1968年の「プラハの春」、80年ポーランド「連帯」運動の存在、といった事例からわかる。また一国における革命が、その国家社会に内在する諸要因により惹起(じゃっき)するものであるとはいえ、他の諸国家との国際的連関のなかで展開され、他の諸国の革命に影響することは、フランス大革命の国際的影響や1848年革命の全ヨーロッパ規模での勃発(ぼっぱつ)、第一次世界大戦のなかからのロシア十月革命とドイツ十一月革命、1989年東欧における連鎖革命、といった事例からうかがえるし、資本主義の世界市場的発展と20世紀政治の国際化、テレビやインターネットによる情報の世界化は、とりわけ革命の国際的連関と世界戦争など対外的契機による権力移動の問題の重要性を浮き彫りにしている。

[加藤哲郎]

革命の要因と政治過程

マルクス主義の革命理論は、その原因を社会の経済的構造における生産力と生産関係との矛盾に求めた。「社会の物質的生産諸力は、その発展のある段階で、それらがそれまでその内部で運動してきた既存の生産諸関係と、あるいはそれの法律的表現にすぎないが、所有諸関係と矛盾するようになる。これらの諸関係は、生産諸力の発展諸形態からその桎梏(しっこく)に一変する。そのときに社会革命の時期が始まる。経済的基礎の変化とともに、巨大な上部構造全体が、あるいは徐々に、あるいは急激に、変革される」(マルクス『経済学批判』への序言)。しかしこれは、階級および階級分派間の対立・抗争の根拠ないし背景を述べたものであり、具体的な政治革命は、諸政治勢力間の同盟・連合と分裂・抗争関係のドラスティックな変容・再編と結び付いて惹起する。レーニンは、政治革命の条件を「革命的情勢」として提示し、その要件を、「〔1〕支配諸階級にとっては、いままでどおりの形で、その支配を維持することが不可能なこと。上層のあれこれの危機、支配階級の政策の危機が、亀裂(きれつ)をつくりだし、そこから、被抑圧階級の不満と激昂(げっこう)が爆発すること。革命が到来するには、通常、『下層』がこれまでどおりに生活することを『のぞまない』だけでは足りない。さらに、『上層』が、これまでどおりに生活することが『できない』ことが必要である。〔2〕被抑圧階級の欠乏と困窮が普通以上に激化すること。〔3〕上記の諸原因によって、大衆の諸活動が著しく高まること」の3点としている。これらは、近代の諸革命の歴史的経験にほとんど当てはまるものであり、とりわけ対外戦争による政治的激動、人心の不安、敗戦による混乱は、「革命的情勢」形成の好個の条件であった。

 しかし、「革命的情勢」は、政治革命の客観的条件をしばしば構成するとはいえ、無政府状態や反革命にも結び付きうるものであり、この客観的条件が政治革命に至るためには、主体的条件、変革を志向する政治勢力の形成と指導の問題が決定的意味をもつ。階級的・階級分派的諸利害をもつ諸政治勢力は、革命的情勢下で、通例、(1)革命を徹底的に遂行しようとする急進派、(2)旧体制を維持し復活しようとする保守反動派、(3)革命を妥協的譲歩内にとどめようとする穏健派、に分裂する。フランス大革命のジャコバン派やロシア革命でのボリシェビキ党は急進派の典型であり、この急進派が、穏健派を含む人民大衆にどれだけ革命の必要性と正統性を訴え、大衆の政治的エネルギーを持続させ、決定的局面でもヘゲモニー的指導を貫徹しうるかによって、おおむね革命の帰趨(きすう)は決せられる。ドイツの十一月革命は、スパルタクス団などの急進派が指導権を貫徹しえず、穏健派の社会民主党などによる妥協的変革に帰結した一例である。

 また、革命権力の成立後も、保守反動派による反革命の危険が残り、他方で急進派は、政治的勢力関係の変化や大衆の政治的成熟の度合いを見失った「行きすぎ」に陥りがちなことも、フランス大革命でのジャコバン派、レーニンの「戦時共産主義」の例にみられたところである。革命権力を握った政治勢力のヘゲモニーと指導の水準は、国家諸装置の再編成をどこまで貫徹しうるかに、もっともよく現れる。旧来の軍隊・警察など軍事的強制力をいかに解体し新秩序の安定性を確保しうるか、土地改革や産業統制・国有化など生産力発展の基礎をいかに再組織しうるか、新しい革命権力の正統性をいかなる法制や代表制で担保していくか、などの問題がここでの焦点となる。

 政治革命は、巨視的には社会構成体の移行をももたらしうる国家権力の階級的性格の変化とみなしうるが、政治過程に即していうならば、さまざまな階級的・階級分派的利害を担った諸政治勢力間の同盟―対抗関係の劇的な再編であり、国家諸装置の再編のあり方のなかに、革命諸勢力のヘゲモニーと指導の水準が凝集されていくものとみなすことができる。

[加藤哲郎]

革命の諸類型と諸形態

ブルジョア民主主義革命とプロレタリア社会主義革命というマルクス主義の古典的2類型は、社会構成体移行の画期をなすイギリス革命、フランス大革命、ロシア革命のような場合について意味をもつが、近代の歴史的諸革命の経験と現代における革命のあり方を考えると、異なる視角が必要となってくる。イギリスのピューリタン革命も、フランス大革命も、土地貴族の政治支配からの排除や普通選挙に基礎を置く民主的議会・代表政府の確立をただちにもたらすものではなかった。ロシアの十月革命も、ブルジョア民主主義革命としての二月革命の社会主義革命への強行的転化として位置づけられているが、当時のロシアは圧倒的に農民の国であり、社会主義革命で成立した「プロレタリアートの独裁」も具体的には「労農民主独裁」とよばれる階級同盟的性格をもっていた。1979年イラン革命は「近代化」に反対する宗教革命の性格をもっていたし、89年東欧革命は労働者・市民が自由と民主主義を求めた「反共産主義革命」であった。

 そもそもプロレタリアートや農民は、ブルジョア民主主義革命においてもブルジョアジーの同盟者として封建支配に対抗する一翼をなしてきたし、生産的肉体労働者としてのプロレタリアートのみによる社会主義革命などというものは歴史的に存在したことがなく将来もありえないであろう(このことは、労働者階級概念として何を意味するかとも関係する)。ブルジョア民主主義革命とプロレタリア社会主義革命という類型は、その政治革命を境にした社会経済的秩序(社会構成体の性格)のマクロ的変動を意味するものである。しかも近代資本主義の世界史的発展と諸革命の歴史的経験は、一方で徹底した政治革命を経ることなきブルジョア化(後発資本主義国ドイツや日本での「上からの革命」)を経験し、他方で、反ファシズムを主要な内容として多くはソ連の援助により樹立された東欧諸国の人民民主主義革命、反帝反封建の民族統一戦線を基礎とした中国の新民主主義革命など、伝統的類型化にかならずしも合致しない新たな革命類型が存在した。主として西欧近代の経験から漠然と西欧から東洋へと波及するであろうと考えられてきた革命の世界史的展開行程、「一国革命と世界革命」「民族革命と階級革命」「先進国革命・中進国革命・後進国革命」といった諸民族=国民の革命の連鎖の図式も、イスラム原理主義派が「近代化」に抵抗したイラン革命、現存社会主義を崩壊させた東欧「民主主義革命」の出現によって、理論的再考を迫られた。「革命的情勢」のメルクマールや革命の具体的形態についても、後発資本主義国でのなし崩し的な「上からの革命」「受動的革命」の経験にかんがみて、第二次世界大戦後にようやく広く承認されるようになった「暴力革命と平和革命」という類型とともに、「反受動的革命」「陣地戦革命」「合意による革命」など、長期にわたる「下からの革命」の諸条件と主体形成、革命と改革ないし改良の関係、政治革命と経済革命・文化革命との関係、丸山真男(まさお)のいう「民主主義の永久革命」などが、現代的問題となっている。1968年のチェコスロバキア「プラハの春」や80~81年のポーランド「連帯」運動を受け継いだ、89年東欧連鎖革命の経験は、階級ないし階級分派間の権力移動としてよりも、民主主義的政治主体形成の視点からの新たな革命概念を要請している。

[加藤哲郎]

『マルクス著、村田陽一訳『フランスにおける内乱』(大月書店・国民文庫)』『レーニン著、宇高基輔訳『国家と革命』(岩波文庫)』『C・ブリントン著、岡義武・篠原一訳『革命の解剖』(1952・岩波書店)』『P・カルヴァート著、田中治男訳『革命』(1977・福村出版)』『上田耕一郎著『先進国革命の理論』(1973・大月書店)』『ハンナ・アレント著、志水速雄訳『革命について』(1975・中央公論社)』『J・ダン著、宮島直機訳『現代革命の系譜』(1978・中央大学出版部)』『加藤哲郎著『東欧革命と社会主義』(1990・花伝社)』

[参照項目] | 社会革命 | 社会主義革命 | 世界革命 | 先進国革命 | 反革命 | ブルジョア革命 | プロレタリア革命 | 平和革命 | 暴力革命

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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