The word "kai" originates from the Sanskrit word śīla, which means "habit, disposition, action," but it also came to be used to mean "good habit, moral action," and the concept of "kai" as a Buddhist term was established. Kai is an ethical virtue that those who practice the teachings of the Buddha and wish to attain enlightenment impose upon themselves, and is a word close to morality. The word 'vinaya', which is used in conjunction with 'kai', comes from the same Sanskrit word 'vinaya', and in Buddhism means 'rules that monks should follow'. Whereas 'kai' is a standard for voluntary conduct, 'vinaya' is equivalent to a law that binds monastic life. Therefore, strictly speaking, 'kai' and 'vinaya' are distinct in meaning, but the word 'kai' came to be used because 'vinaya' (monastic discipline) is established by 'kai' (the mindset of a Buddhist). Many religions have things similar to precepts or rules, such as the Torah (law) of Judaism, the Shari'ah (law) of Islam, the "monastic precepts" of Catholicism, and the "purification rules" of Buddhism and Taoism, and all of these are commonly referred to as "precepts." [Noriaki Akaike] Origin of the PreceptsThere is a school of thought that sees the original form of discipline as taboos. Taboos are based on the idea that certain objects or actions have supernatural properties, and that violation of these will result in punishment. The power of prohibition and punishment that taboos possess played a powerful role in social control and the suppression of individual desires in primitive societies. In other words, taboos contain the embryonic principles of law and morality. It is believed that as taboos differentiated and their magical nature was overcome, discipline was born, and then developed further into secular law and morality. [Noriaki Akaike] BuddhismThe framework of Buddhist practice is precepts, concentration, and wisdom. Through the practice of precepts, one attains concentration (unity of mind), and by realizing concentration, one attains wisdom (nirvana). Precepts are seen as the gateway to liberation. For all those who aspire to liberation, the precepts are an autonomous code of conduct and a discipline for daily life, but as Buddhist sects developed, the distinction between monks and laypeople (those who converted to Buddhism while remaining secular) became fixed, and various rules based on the precepts were established for monks. At the Third Assemblies after the death of Buddha, traditional practices and norms were organized and compiled, and the Vinaya, a system of precepts, was established. For lay persons, the Five Precepts of "not killing, not stealing, not committing adultery, not lying, and not drinking alcohol" and the Eight Precepts encouraging fasting and abstinence three times a week were institutionalized, while for monks, the Ten Precepts for Novices and Nun, the 250 Precepts for Bhikkhu, and the 348 Precepts for Bhikkhu-Nun were established. The precepts observed by bhikkhu and bhikkhu-Nun are called "full precepts," which means complete discipline. Buddhism in present-day Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, and other countries belongs to the Theravada Buddhism tradition, which places great importance on discipline. On the other hand, with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, a training system centered on precepts that eliminated the distinction between monks and laypeople developed. The Bodhisattva Precepts are the precepts that Mahayana bodhisattvas must observe, and they state that one must refrain from evil, cultivate good, and serve others. They are also called the Three Pure Precepts. There are many scriptures that explain these precepts, but the Brahma Net Precepts in the Brahma Net Sutra and the Yoga Precepts in the Yogacara Treatise are representative. The Ten Good Precepts and the Ten Great Prohibitions are also Mahayana precepts that fall into the same category. However, Mahayana precepts tend to create a tendency for monks to neglect their ascetic practices, and so there was a demand for regulations for monastic life to prevent this. A representative example of this is the "Pure Rules." The most famous are the "Hyakuzhang Rules" in China and Dogen's "Yongping Rules." [Noriaki Akaike] Judaism and ChristianityThe Jewish law refers to the Pentateuch in the Old Testament. The core of the law is the section known as the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17, Deuteronomy 5:6-21). The first four are human obligations toward God, while the last six are ethical regulations for human relationships. While Buddhist precepts are a subjective choice of oneself, the law is a contract between God Yahweh and the Israelites, with blessings to be meted out to those who obey and retribution to those who break the law. The idea of a contract between God and a people fostered the idea of a chosen people, giving rise to theocracy and even legalism, which enforced a standardized religious lifestyle. Jesus rejected legalism and preached God's salvation through the gospel. Jesus argued that the law shows how humans should live before God and should be obeyed as an expression of gratitude for God's grace. By shifting the meaning of the law from contract to gratitude, Christianity transcended ethnic boundaries and paved the way to becoming a world religion. In parallel with Christianity becoming the official religion of Rome, monks who sought strict asceticism were born and monastic rules for an ascetic life were created. The Benedictine Rule (established in 539) is famous. [Noriaki Akaike] Other ReligionsInfluenced by Chinese Buddhism, Taoist religious organizations also created rules of purification, such as the Quanzhen Jiao's "Quanzhen Qing Rui." The content of these rules is centered on penalties. Islamic law is a law that regulates Muslim communities based on God's will. The law is also a standard of secular law, and is characterized by the fact that it considers religious order and social order to be inseparable. [Noriaki Akaike] [References] | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
戒の語源はサンスクリット語のシーラśīlaで、「習慣、性質、行為」などを意味するが、さらに「良い習慣、道徳的行為」にも用いられるようになり、仏教用語としての戒の概念が成立した。戒は、仏陀(ぶっだ)の教えを実践し解脱(げだつ)の境地を願う者が自己自身に対して課する倫理的徳目であり、道徳に近い語である。 戒と併用される律は同じサンスクリット語のビナヤvinayaに由来し、仏教では「修行僧の遵守すべき規則」の意味である。戒が自発的な行為の規準であるのに対し、律は僧院生活者を拘束する法律に等しい。したがって語義のうえでは厳密には戒と律は区別されるが、戒(仏教者の心がまえ)によって律(僧院規律)が成り立つところから、「戒律」の語が使われるようになった。 ユダヤ教のトーラーtōrāh(律法)、イスラム教のシャリーアsharī‘ah(律法)、あるいはカトリックの「修道戒律」、仏教・道教(どうきょう)の「清規(しんぎ)」など、戒・律に類するものは多くの宗教にみられ、一般にはこれらをすべて含めて戒律と通称している。 [赤池憲昭] 戒律の起源戒律の原初形態をタブーにみる考え方がある。タブーは特定の対象や行為が超自然的性質をもち、それを犯せば処罰が加えられるという観念に基づく。タブーのもつ禁止と制裁の威力は、原始社会における社会的統制と個人の欲望の抑圧に強力な役割を果たした。つまりタブーには法律ないし道徳の萌芽(ほうが)的原理が含まれている。タブーが分化しその呪術(じゅじゅつ)性が克服されるに伴い、戒律が生まれ、さらに世俗的な法律、道徳へ発展したと考えられている。 [赤池憲昭] 仏教仏教の実践論の骨格は、戒(かい)、定(じょう)、慧(え)である。戒の実践を通じて定(精神の統一)を得、定の体得により慧(涅槃(ねはん))に至る。戒は解脱への入り口として位置づけられている。解脱を志すすべての者にとって、戒は自律的な行動原則であり日常生活の戒めであるが、仏教教団の展開とともに出家(しゅっけ)者、在家(ざいけ)者(在俗のまま仏教に帰依(きえ)したもの)の区別が固定化し、出家者には戒を基本とするさまざまの律が設けられるようになった。仏滅後の第三結集(けつじゅう)において、従来の慣行や規範が整理集成され、戒律の体系である『律蔵(りつぞう)』が成立する。在家者には「不殺生(ふせっしょう)、不偸盗(ふちゅうとう)、不邪淫(ふじゃいん)、不妄語(ふもうご)、不飲酒(ふおんじゅ)」の五戒、半月に3回断食(だんじき)・禁欲を勧める八斎(はっさい)戒などが制度化され、出家者に対しては、沙弥(しゃみ)・沙弥尼(に)の十戒、比丘(びく)の二百五十戒、比丘尼の三百四十八戒などの修行規則が設けられた。比丘・比丘尼の守る戒を具足(ぐそく)戒という。完全な戒律の意味である。現在のタイ、ミャンマー(ビルマ)、スリランカなどの仏教は、戒律を重視する上座(じょうざ)仏教の流れに属する。 一方、大乗(だいじょう)仏教の興起に伴い、出家・在家の別をなくした戒中心の修行体系が発展する。大乗の菩薩(ぼさつ)が守るべき戒として菩薩戒があり、悪をとどめ、善を修め、他の人々のために尽くすことを内容としている。三聚浄戒(さんじゅじょうかい)ともいう。この戒を説く教典は数多いが、『梵網(ぼんもう)経』の梵網戒と『瑜伽(ゆが)論』の瑜伽戒が代表的である。十善戒、十重禁戒なども同一の範疇(はんちゅう)に入る大乗戒である。しかし大乗戒はとかく出家集団の修道を軽んずる傾向を生みやすく、これの歯止めとして出家生活の規定が要望された。その代表的なものが「清規」である。中国における『百丈清規』、道元(どうげん)の『永平(えいへい)清規』が著名である。 [赤池憲昭] ユダヤ教とキリスト教ユダヤ教の律法とは『旧約聖書』の「モーセ五書」をさす。なかでも「モーセの十戒」(「出エジプト記」20章1~17節、「申命(しんめい)記」5章6~21節)として知られる部分が律法の中核である。前半四つは神に対する人間の義務、後半六つは人間関係の倫理規定である。仏教の戒が自己の主体的選びであるのに対し、律法は神ヤーウェとイスラエル民族との契約であり、遵守には恩恵が、違反には報復が予定される。神と民族との契約観念は選民思想をはぐくみ、神政政治さらには規格化した信仰生活を強制する律法主義を生んだ。 イエスは律法主義を排し福音(ふくいん)による神の救済を説いた。律法は神の前での人間の生き方を示しており、神の恩寵(おんちょう)への感謝として守るべきものであるというのがイエスの主張である。律法の意味づけを契約から感謝へと転換したことにより、キリスト教は民族の枠を超えて世界宗教への道を開いた。キリスト教のローマ国教化と並行し、厳しい修徳を求める修道者が生まれ、禁欲生活のための修道戒律がつくられる。『ベネディクトゥス戒律』(539制定)が名高い。 [赤池憲昭] その他の宗教中国仏教の影響を受けて道教の教団にも清規がつくられる。全真教(ぜんしんきょう)の『全真清規』などである。内容は罰則を中心としている。イスラム教の律法は、神の意志に基づきイスラム教徒の共同体を規制する法である。律法は世俗的な法の規準でもあり、宗教秩序と社会秩序とを不可分のものとしているところに特色がある。 [赤池憲昭] [参照項目] | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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