Accounting, which is the subject of study in accounting, is the act of quantitatively grasping the activities of a specific entity or organization, primarily using monetary amounts, compiling the results in an appropriate report, and making the results known to those involved. Accounting is an academic field that studies the methods of measurement and reporting in such activities, as well as the impact or effect of such systems. The significance of systematically practicing accounting is often in its focus on economic entities that have a significant stake in the accounting-based system, i.e., profit-making enterprises. Generally speaking, therefore, accounting often refers to the field of study of corporate accounting, particularly the preparation and disclosure systems of financial statements, which are the means of systematically publishing the results of economic activities. However, in a broad sense, accounting does not only cover profit-making enterprises, but also includes entities known as non-profit organizations, such as the state, local governments, independent administrative institutions, social welfare corporations, and school corporations. Especially since the latter half of the 1990s, emphasis has been placed on the effects of introducing corporate accounting principles to non-profit organizations, and research in these areas has made concrete progress. In addition, concrete efforts have been made to express and disclose actions such as contributions to society (or the community) and environmental conservation in accounting terms, and research in these areas is also beginning to be recognized as part of the scope of accounting. [Tokai Mikio] The Establishment of AccountingAccounting is said to have only been established as an academic discipline since the 20th century, but its development is closely related to the development and development of accounting, i.e., the recording technique for accounting books. In particular, the birth of double-entry bookkeeping, which is now widely used as a common technique, had a strong influence on accounting, which has developed as an academic discipline that pursues the principle of profit calculation. In that sense, many researchers place the origin of accounting in Luca Paccioli's book Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (Complete Book of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratios and Proportions), published in 1494. The economic environment that influenced the development of early bookkeeping was the commercial form that developed in Italian cities from the 13th to the 15th centuries. The venture trade and the commenda contract system of the time gave birth to the concepts of double-entry bookkeeping and accounting responsibility, but the principle of profit calculation was based on one-time calculation. Subsequently, the European economy shifted from Italy to the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, and with this shift, settled and continuous markets were formed, and concepts such as going concern and periodic profit and loss calculation, which are similar to modern accounting, were introduced. Furthermore, the establishment of the joint stock company system and the development of mass production principles during the Industrial Revolution had a major impact on the formation of modern accounting. These phenomena led to the penetration of a full-fledged accounting reporting system and interest adjustment functions into accounting. Thus, accounting as an academic discipline has rapidly developed since the beginning of the 20th century, along with the strengthening of legal regulations, the establishment of various accounting research institutes, and the publication of various accounting-related reports, and has continued to develop to this day. [Tokai Mikio] Accounting Big Bang and System ChangeSince the collapse of the bubble economy in the early 1990s, Japan's economy has undergone a major transformation, from a high-growth model to a low- or stable-growth model. This dramatic change in the economic environment has had a significant impact on the nature of the accounting system and the foundations of accounting theory. The financial system reforms that have taken place since 1996 are often called the Financial Big Bang, but revisions to accounting standards played a major role at the heart of these system reforms. This is known as the Accounting Big Bang. Until then, traditional accounting was based on theories such as historical cost accounting and realization accounting, and maintained an accounting system that placed emphasis on measuring the profitability of companies. However, the basic method for economic recovery after the collapse of the bubble economy changed to strictly capturing and disclosing the bad assets and future liabilities held by companies. This trend was also called the global standardization of accounting, as it was consistent with the requirements of international accounting standards. Specifically, starting with the introduction of consolidated accounting and cash flow accounting in 1999, accounting standards that completely changed traditional accounting theory were introduced, such as fair value accounting for financial instruments, retirement benefit accounting, and impairment accounting. The Companies Act, which came into effect in 2006, also stipulated that these accounting standards should be generally recognized as fair and reasonable accounting practices and should be followed. As a result, the subject of accounting research shifted to the study of accounting standards in the securities market. [Tokai Mikio] The role and structure of modern accountingTraditional accounting has emphasized the role of adjusting the relationship between capital holders (shareholders, etc.) and creditors, as well as the interests of so-called stakeholders such as taxation agencies, employees, business partners, related regions, etc., by operating a single accounting system. Even in modern times, it is believed that the distribution of profits and the preservation of assets can be achieved in harmony through the implementation of appropriate accounting. However, due to the major reforms of the accounting system mentioned above, the role of the accounting system is shifting considerably to the significance of accounting information of high quality and quantity, which accurately grasps and discloses the actual situation of a company. In order to realize such a role, the introduction of figures based on forecasts, which have traditionally been avoided, has been actively incorporated. This is notably applied to retirement benefits and impairment of fixed assets. The subject of accounting is expanding from the measurement of reliable objective figures to the incorporation of evaluation figures including estimated calculations. Modern accounting, which studies the role of accounting information within organizations, is generally divided into financial accounting, which is implemented regulated by legal norms (such as the Financial Instruments and Exchange Act and the Companies Act) and studies how accounting information should be disclosed to the outside world, and management accounting, which studies accounting information that is prepared in a timely and purposeful manner for the internal performance evaluation and management of a company and for management decision-making by its executives and managers. [Tokai Mikio] "Financial Accounting Theory" by Toshio Iino, 3rd Edition (2000, Dobunkan Publishing) " "New Draft Modern Accounting" by Tadashi Nakamura, 9th Edition (2005, Hakuto Shobo)" "Lectures on Financial Accounting" by Hisakatsu Sakurai, 9th Edition (2008, Chuo Keizaisha)" [Reference] | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
会計学の研究対象である会計とは、ある特定の主体もしくは組織の活動を主として貨幣額を用いて計数的に把握して、その結果を適切な報告書にまとめ関係者に知らしめる行為である。会計学は、そのような行為における測定や報告の方法、さらにはそのような仕組みの与える影響あるいは効果などを研究する学問領域のことをいう。 会計を体系的に実践する意義は、多くの場合、会計を基盤とする制度によって重要な利害をもたらす経済主体すなわち営利的な企業を対象とすることにある。したがって、一般的にいえば、会計学は、企業会計、とくにその経済活動の実績を制度的に公表する手段である財務諸表の作成方法や開示制度を研究する領域をいうことが多い。 ただし広義にいえば、会計学は、営利企業ばかりでなく、国家、地方自治体、独立行政法人、社会福祉法人、学校法人などの非営利組織とよばれる主体を対象とするものも含まれる。とくに1990年代後半以降は、非営利組織における企業会計原理の導入効果が重視されるようになって、これらの領域における研究が具体的に進展している。また、社会(あるいはコミュニティ)や環境保全への貢献などの行為を会計的に表現し開示しようとする試みも具体化しており、こういった領域の研究も会計学の範囲として認識されつつある。 [東海幹夫] 会計学の成立会計が学問として成立したのは20世紀に入ってからのことといわれているが、その生成は会計帳簿の記録技術すなわち簿記の生成・発展と密接な関係をもっている。とくに今日一般的な技術として普及した複式簿記の誕生は、利潤計算原理を追及する学問として発展してきた会計学に強い影響を与えた。その意味で、多くの研究者は会計学の起点を1494年に出版されたルカ・パチオーリの著書『ズンマ』Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita(『算数、幾何、比および比例全書』)に置いている。初期の簿記会計の発展に影響を与えた経済環境は、13世紀から15世紀にかけて発展したイタリア諸都市の商業形態である。当時のベンチャー貿易やコンメンダ契約方式は、複式簿記や会計責任の概念を生み出したが、利潤計算原理は口別(1回限り)計算を基本とするものであった。その後、ヨーロッパ経済はイタリアからオランダ、フランス、イギリスへと移っていくが、これとともに定住的で継続的な市場を形成するようになり、現代会計に通ずるゴーイング・コンサーン(継続企業)や期間損益計算の考え方を導入するようになった。 さらに、現代会計学の成立に重要な影響を与えたのは、株式会社制度の確立や産業革命による大量生産原理の展開である。このような現象が、会計に本格的な会計報告制度や利害調整機能を浸透させることとなった。このように学問としての会計は、法規制の強化、いろいろな会計研究機関の創設、諸種の会計関連報告書の公表などとともに、20世紀になり急速に進展して今日に至っている。 [東海幹夫] 会計ビッグバンと制度の転換日本の経済は、1990年代初頭のバブル経済崩壊以降、高度成長型から低位もしくは安定成長型へと大きく変転をした。このような経済環境の激変は、会計制度のあり方さらには会計理論の基盤に重要な影響を与えることとなった。1996年(平成8)以降の金融制度改革を金融ビッグバンとよぶことが多いが、その制度改革の中枢には会計基準の改正が大きな役割を果たしていた。このことを会計ビッグバンと称している。 それまでの伝統的な会計は、取得原価主義や実現主義といった理論を柱にして、どちらかといえば企業の収益性を測る仕組みを重視した会計制度を維持してきた。しかしながら、バブル崩壊による経済復興のための基本的な手法は、企業の抱える不良性資産や将来発生債務を厳格に捕捉(ほそく)して開示することに変化することとなった。この動向は、国際的な会計基準の求めるものと一致していることから、会計のグローバル・スタンダード化ともよばれた。具体的には、1999年における連結会計、キャッシュ・フロー会計の導入に始まって、金融商品の時価評価会計、退職給付会計、減損会計などと、従来の会計理論を一変させる会計基準の導入に踏み切った。2006年に施行された会社法も、これらの会計基準を一般に公正妥当な会計慣行と認知して、それに準拠すべきことを規定することとなった。このことにより、会計学の研究対象は、証券市場における会計基準の研究を軸にして転回されることとなった。 [東海幹夫] 現代会計学の役割と体系伝統的な会計学は、資本主(株主等)と債権者との間の関係、さらには徴税機関、従業員、取引先、関係地域などの、いわゆる利害関係者(ステイクホルダーともいう)間の諸利害を、一つの会計制度を運用することによって調整する役割を重視してきた。現代においても、利益の分配と資産の保全とは、適切な会計の実行によって調和的に図られるものと考えている。 ただし、前述のような会計制度の大きな改革によって、会計制度の役割は、企業の現実的な実態を的確に把握して開示するという質および量ともに程度の高い会計情報の意義に相当の重きを移しつつあるといえる。そのような役割を現実のものとするためには、伝統的には回避されてきた予測に基づく数値の導入も積極的に取り込むこととなった。退職給付や固定資産の減損などに顕著に適用されている。会計学の対象は、確実性ある客観的な数値の測定から推定計算を含む評価数値を取り込む方向へと広がっている。 なお、組織における会計情報のあり方を研究する現代の会計学は、一般的には、法規範(金融商品取引法や会社法など)によって規制的に実施され、会計情報の外部への開示をどのようになすべきかを研究する財務会計と、企業内部の経営者や管理者の企業内部的な業績評価・管理や経営意思決定のために適時に目的適合的に作成される会計情報の研究をする管理会計とに区分され論じられることが多い。 [東海幹夫] 『飯野利夫著『財務会計論』3訂版(2000・同文舘出版)』▽『中村忠著『新稿 現代会計学』9訂版(2005・白桃書房)』▽『桜井久勝著『財務会計講義』第9版(2008・中央経済社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
<<: Accounting audit - Kaikeikansa (English) accounting audit
A liturgy of monastic vows unique to the monastic ...
…[Tadaaki Imaizumi]. … *Some of the terminology t...
In addition to the 11 legal infectious diseases su...
…The common bile duct merges with the main pancre...
...The election was won by the Democratic Party (...
...life cycle is complex, with some species repro...
Calvin cycle, also known as the reductive pentose ...
…[Yoshimura Sakuji] Lake Qarun (anciently named L...
The professional class of merchants in medieval Eu...
1889‐1934 Leader of the Ukrainian peasant movement...
Bunraku puppet theater. Historical piece. Three ac...
… [Okamoto Motoji]. … *Some of the terminology th...
…It has a tundra climate, with glaciers and perma...
A fossil genus belonging to the gymnosperm family ...
1. How to spend money. The extent to which money i...