The airspace above a nation's territory and territorial waters. Specifically, it is the airspace enclosed by a line drawn vertically on the surface of the earth at the outer limits of the nation's territory and territorial waters (consisting of inland waters such as lakes, rivers, and ports, and territorial seas), although its upper limit (the boundary with outer space) is undetermined under international law. From the actions of European countries during World War I, it was recognized that each nation has "complete and exclusive sovereignty" (airspace sovereignty) over the space above its territory, and this principle was codified in Article 1 of the 1919 "International Air Convention" (Paris Convention) and Article 1 of the 1944 "Convention on International Civil Aviation" (Chicago Convention), and is today an established legal principle. Due to the complete and exclusive nature of sovereignty over airspace, foreign aircraft in a country's airspace are not granted rights under general international law, such as the right of innocent passage enjoyed by foreign ships in the territorial waters of coastal states, and if they enter the airspace of a country without the permission of the territorial state or a basis under a treaty or agreement, they have been considered an internationally illegal act of airspace violation. In such cases, the territorial state will take measures such as issuing warnings, changing course, ordering the aircraft to leave, or ordering it to land, but there have also been cases where force has been used, including shooting the aircraft down. However, in order to prepare for the risk of surprise attacks by foreign military aircraft, and to ensure the safe operation of international civil aviation, there is a growing tendency to take measures to distinguish between military and civilian aircraft in violation of territorial airspace. In particular, the shooting down of a Korean Airlines plane by a missile attack from a Soviet Air Force plane over Sakhalin in 1983, killing all crew and passengers, awakened the world to the need for further international cooperation to ensure the safety of international civil aviation, and a resolution by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) incorporating the principle of non-use of force against civil aircraft was supported by many countries. As a result, the Chicago Convention was amended in 1984 to add a general provision to refrain from using weapons against civil aircraft. Today, in order to facilitate smooth international civil air transport, the rights of flight and transport are mutually secured through bilateral aviation agreements concluded between the countries concerned. In this way, the liberalization of the skies is generally realized concretely through negotiations and agreements between the countries concerned, and sovereignty of airspace functions not only to ensure the military security and public order of a nation, but also as a means of exchanging and securing rights in international commercial aviation. Furthermore, for military security purposes, many coastal countries are increasingly setting up Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZs) over a certain area of international airspace (international airspace) that connects to their territorial waters, and requiring foreign aircraft to report their positions, etc. ADIZs were once problematic in relation to freedom of flight in international airspace, but today they are generally viewed as legitimate measures for the security of coastal countries. With the expansion of territorial waters to 12 nautical miles and the introduction of the archipelagic theory, the freedom of overflight that has traditionally been recognized over the high seas will be lost in international straits and archipelagic waters, where the airspace above them is the territorial airspace of the strait or archipelagic States, but the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea guarantees all foreign aircraft, including military aircraft, the right of transit passage for continuous and expeditious transit (Article 38) and the right of archipelagic sea lanes passage (Article 53). [Tadao Kuribayashi] [References] | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
領土・領水上空の国家領域。具体的には、領土と領水(湖、河川、港などの内水と領海からなる)の外側の限界において地表上垂直に立てた線によって囲まれた空域部分をさすが、その上限(宇宙空間との境界)は国際法上未確定。第一次世界大戦中のヨーロッパ諸国の実行から、各国はその領域上の空間において「完全かつ排他的な主権」(領空主権)を有することが承認され、この原則は1919年の「国際航空条約」(パリ条約)第1条、1944年の「国際民間航空条約」(シカゴ条約)第1条などにおいて明文化され、今日では確立された法原則となっている。 領空主権の完全・排他性のため、ある国の領空における外国航空機は、外国船舶が沿岸国の領海において享有する無害通航権のような一般国際法上の権利を認められず、領域国の許可または条約、協定上の根拠なくその国の領空に立ち入る場合は、領空侵犯として国際違法行為とされてきた。その場合、領域国は警告、進路変更、退去、着陸命令などの対応措置をとるが、撃墜を含む実力行使がとられることもあった。しかし、一方で外国軍用機による奇襲攻撃の危険性に備えるため、また、他方で国際民間航空の安全運航を確保するため、領空侵犯について軍用航空機と民間航空機とを区別した対応措置をとる傾向が生じている。とくに、1983年にソ連空軍機のミサイル攻撃によりサハリン付近上空で撃墜され乗員・乗客全員が死亡した大韓航空機撃墜事件は、国際民間航空の安全を確保するための国際協力のさらなる必要性を世界中に喚起し、民間航空機に対する武力不行使の原則を盛り込んだ国際民間航空機関(ICAO)の決議が多数の国によって支持された。その結果、1984年にシカゴ条約の改正が行われ、民間航空機に対する武器の使用を差し控える旨の一般的規定が追加された。 今日では、円滑な国際民間航空運送業務のために、関係国間で締結される二国間航空協定によって相互に飛行権や運輸権が確保されている。このように、空の自由化は一般に関係国相互間の交渉、協定を通じて具体的に実現されるため、領空主権は、国家の軍事的安全や公の秩序を確保するためばかりでなく、国際商業航空における権益を交換、確保するための手段としても機能している。 また、多くの沿岸国が軍事的安全保障のために領海上空に接続する公海上空(公空)に一定範囲の防空識別圏(ADIZ)を設定して、外国航空機に位置報告等を要求するという実行が増えている。ADIZは公空における飛行の自由との関係で問題とされたが、今日では沿岸国の安全保障のための措置として一般的に合法視されている。 なお、12海里までの領海幅員の拡大や群島理論の導入によって、従来から認められてきた公海上空の飛行の自由が失われることになる国際海峡と群島水域においては、それらの上空が海峡沿岸国や群島国の領空であるにもかかわらず、1982年の国連海洋法条約が、軍用航空機を含むすべての外国航空機に対して、継続的かつ迅速な通過のための通過通航権(第38条)と群島航路帯通航権(第53条)を保証している。 [栗林忠男] [参照項目] | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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