Mencius

Japanese: 孟子 - もうし

Years of birth and death unknown. Meng Ke was a Confucian scholar in the Warring States period in China. Or the name of a book that conveys his ideas. The "Ke" in Meng Ke is his given name. His pen name is said to be Ziyu or Ziche, but there is little evidence to support this. He was born in the first half of the 4th century BC, about 100 years after the death of Confucius. There are stories about Meng Mu's three moves and the teachings of Danji from his childhood, but these are doubtful as to whether they are historical facts. He was born in the country of Zou, which is now part of Shandong Province. As a young man, he traveled to Lu, the country of Confucius' birth, to study, where he studied under the disciples of Confucius' grandson Zi Si (Kong Zhu). Later, he took his disciples and formed a large force of "dozens of chariots and several hundred attendants" to travel extensively to kings such as King Hui of Liang (Wei) (reigned 369-319 BC), King Xuan of Qi (reigned 319-301 BC), Duke Mu of Zou (reigned 382-330 BC), and Duke Wen of Teng (reigned 326 BC - ?), but was unsuccessful, so he spent his later years in his hometown training the next generation of leaders.

[Kenjiro Tsuchida December 14, 2015]

Thought

During the Warring States period when Mencius lived, powerful feudal lords called themselves kings, subjugated other countries through military force, and sought to rule the world. Their goal was to become a ruler like Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period. In this environment, Mencius preached his idealistic ideas to the feudal lords. First, he pointed out that the feudal lords' ambition was to become rulers, and then he rejected the path of hegemony and advocated the path of kingship. He argued that the path of hegemony, which aims to enrich the country and strengthen the military through force, cannot win the hearts of the people, but that it is only by the path of kingship based on benevolence that one can win the hearts of the people and rule the world. Mencius argued that the key to governance is not the size of the army or territory, but winning the hearts of the people. This theory of the Kingly Way was a Confucian method of governing based on benevolence, taking into account the desires of the feudal lords, but in the end it was not used because of its overly idealistic tendencies.

Mencius's emphasis on understanding the people's will was also expressed in an extreme form, as his support for the Revolution by Changing the Dynasty. The idea that an emperor who had lost the trust of the people should be defeated by force was considered dangerous not only at the time, but for many generations to come. There was even a story that any ship carrying Mencius to Japan would surely sink. Also famous is the Well-Field Method, which he preached as part of kingly politics. The Well-Field Method involved dividing rice fields into nine parts in a well shape, with the central part designated as public land for tax purposes and the surrounding areas allocated equally, and it endured for a long time as an ideal for the land system.

His ideas are based on an almost optimistic trust in human beings. Humans are born with the potential for the four virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. These are manifested in the heart as the four emotions (compassion, shame, courtesy, and righteousness). People must expand these four emotions and demonstrate the goodness in their hearts. This is the famous theory of human nature being good. His argument, along with the theory of human nature being evil proposed by Xunzi, who was about 50 years his junior, has long been considered the two archetypal theories of human nature.

Mencius' time was a time when eloquent speakers were very active. Many eloquent speakers gathered in Linzi, the capital of Qi, and the lively atmosphere was called "the study of the Ji-sub area." Mencius also debated in the Ji-sub area, but he also engaged in lively debates in other regions. The most famous of Mencius' series of debates is his exchange with Gaozi, who said that nature cannot be judged as good or evil. He also rejected Mo Di's (Mozi) theory of indiscriminate love and Yang Zhu's theory of self-interest as extreme, and argued for a system of benevolence and righteousness that gradually extends to others, with family ethics as its pillar. The polemical nature of his discourse brought logic and systematicity to Confucian studies that Confucius did not have. The Mencius came to be highly revered in later generations, especially from the Song dynasty onwards, as a theoretical book that explained Confucian doctrine.

[Kenjiro Tsuchida December 14, 2015]

book

"Mencius" is a book of thought that collects the words of Mencius, who traveled around the country, and exchanged views with feudal lords, intellectuals, and disciples. It consists of seven chapters: "King Hui of Liang" (1912-1920), "Gongsun Chou" (1912-1920), "Teng Wen Gong" (1912-1920), "Li Lou" (1912-1920), "Wan Zhang" (1912-1920), "Gaozi" (1912-1920), and "Jinxin" (1912-1920), and is thought to have been edited by disciples. For a long time, "Mencius" was not treated as a classic text (the most fundamental classic of Confucianism). However, in the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu praised this book, which was passed down to the Northern Song Dynasty and gradually came to be valued. Then, after Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi) of the Southern Song Dynasty included it in the Four Books (The Analects, The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and Mencius), the authority of Neo-Confucianism grew and this book gained an unshakable position as a classic text. However, there was also a series of criticisms of Mencius, including from Sima Guang and Li Yu (1009-1059) of the Northern Song Dynasty, which also shows that the idealistic content of this book was sometimes seen as dangerous.

[Kenjiro Tsuchida December 14, 2015]

"Selections from the Chinese Classics 5: Mencius, translated and annotated by Osamu Kanaya (1966, Asahi Shimbun)" ▽ "Complete Commentary on the Chinese Classics Series 2: Mencius, translated and annotated by Seiichi Uno (1973, Shueisha)" ▽ "Mencius, Volumes 1 and 2, translated and annotated by Katsuhito Kobayashi (Iwanami Bunko)" ▽ "Mencius, by Osamu Kanaya (Iwanami Shinsho)"

[References] | The Royal Path | The Four Ends | The Theory of Human Evil | The Theory of Human Goodness

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

生没年未詳。中国、戦国時代の儒者である孟軻(もうか)。あるいは彼の思想を伝える書物の名。孟軻の軻は名。字(あざな)は子輿(しよ)または子車といわれるが、根拠は薄い。孔子(こうし)没後100年ほどたった紀元前4世紀前半ごろに生まれる。幼時の話に孟母三遷(もうぼさんせん)や断機(だんき)の教えがあるが、史実かどうか疑わしい。生地は鄒(すう)の国で、現在の山東省に属する。若いころに孔子の生国である魯(ろ)に遊学し、そこで孔子の孫の子思(しし)（孔伋(こうきゅう)）の門人に学んだ。のち、弟子たちを引き連れ、「後車数十乗（台）、従者数百人」という大部隊で、梁(りょう)（魏(ぎ)）の恵(けい)王（在位前369〜前319）、斉(せい)の宣(せん)王（在位前319〜前301）、鄒の穆(ぼく)公（在位前382〜前330）、滕(とう)の文(ぶん)公（在位前326〜？）などに遊説(ゆうぜい)して回ったが、いずれも不首尾で、晩年は郷里で後進の指導にあたった。

［土田健次郎　2015年12月14日］

思想

孟子の生きた戦国時代、有力諸侯は自ら王と称し、武力によって他国を帰属させ、天下に覇(は)を唱えようとしていた。彼らの目標は、春秋時代の斉(せい)の桓(かん)公や晋(しん)の文公のような覇者であった。このようななかで孟子は、その理想主義的な思想を諸侯に説いて回った。まず彼は、諸侯たちの野心が覇者たるにあることを指摘し、そのうえで覇道を否定し、王道を唱えた。力により富国強兵を図る覇道では人心を掌握できない、仁愛による王道によってこそ民心を獲得し、天下を統治できるとしたのである。軍隊や領土の大小ではなく、人心の掌握こそ統治の要諦(ようてい)である、というのが孟子の主張であった。この王道論は諸侯の欲望を踏まえつつ、仁による儒家としての統治法をいうものであったが、結局は、そのあまりの理想主義的傾向のゆえに用いられなかった。

　孟子の民心把握の重視はまた、易姓(えきせい)革命の肯定という過激な形でも現れた。民の信頼を失った天子は武力によって討伐されても当然というこの考えは、当時のみならず後世ながく危険思想とみなされた。『孟子』を積んで日本に渡る船はかならず沈没するという話すらあったほどである。なお王道政治の一環として彼が説いた井田(せいでん)法も有名である。井田法とは、田地を井字型に九分し、中央を租税用の公田(こうでん)としてその周囲を均等に配分するというもので、土地制度の理念として長く生き続けた。

　彼の思想は、人間に対する楽観的ともいえる信頼に基づいている。人間は、生まれながらにして仁(じん)、義(ぎ)、礼(れい)、智(ち)の四徳(しとく)の可能性を内包している。そしてそれは四端(したん)の情（惻隠(そくいん)、羞悪(しゅうお)、辞譲(じじょう)、是非(ぜひ)）として心に兆す。人はこの四端を拡大し、心の善性を発揮せねばならない。これが有名な性善説である。彼のこの主張は、約50年後輩の荀子(じゅんし)の性悪説とともに長く人性説の二典型とされた。

　孟子の時代は、遊説家の活躍した時代であった。とくに斉の都の臨淄(りんし)には遊説家が多く集まり、その活況は「稷下(しょくか)の学」といわれる。孟子もこの稷下で論陣を張ったことがあるが、他の地方でも盛んに論争を行った。孟子の一連の論争のなかでもっとも有名なのは、性に善悪はいえぬとする告子(こくし)との応酬である。また墨翟(ぼくてき)（墨子）の兼愛説（無差別愛の主張）と楊朱(ようしゅ)の為我(いが)説（徹底した利己主義）をそれぞれ極論として退け、家族倫理を柱に漸次(ぜんじ)他者へと及ぼす仁義(じんぎ)の主張を行った。彼の言説の論争的性格は、孔子にはなかった論理性と体系性を儒家の学にもたらすものであった。そして『孟子』は、儒家の教理を説いた理論書として、後世とくに宋(そう)以降に重んぜられることになった。

［土田健次郎　2015年12月14日］

書物

『孟子』は、諸国を遊説した孟子が諸侯や知識人、門弟などと問答したことばを集めた思想書である。「梁恵王(りょうのけいおう)」上下、「公孫丑(こうそんちゅう)」上下、「滕文公(とうのぶんこう)」上下、「離婁(りろう)」上下、「万章(ばんしょう)」上下、「告子(こくし)」上下、「尽心(じんしん)」上下の七篇(へん)からなり、門弟の編集をもとにしていると推測されている。『孟子』は長く経書(けいしょ)（儒教のもっとも基本的な古典）としての扱いを受けていなかった。しかし唐(とう)になり韓愈(かんゆ)がこの書を顕彰し、それが北宋に受け継がれ、しだいに重視されるようになった。そして南宋の朱熹(しゅき)（朱子）が四書（『論語』『大学』『中庸(ちゅうよう)』『孟子』）の一つに数えてから、朱子学の権威の増大とともに、この書も経書として揺るぎない地位をもつに至った。しかし一方では、北宋の司馬光(しばこう)、李覯(りこう)（1009―1059）をはじめとする一連の孟子批判も存在し、そのことはまた、この書のもつ理想主義的内容が、ときに危険思想ともみられたことを物語ってもいる。

［土田健次郎　2015年12月14日］

『金谷治訳注『中国古典選5　孟子』（1966・朝日新聞社）』▽『宇野精一訳注『全釈漢文大系2　孟子』（1973・集英社）』▽『小林勝人訳注『孟子』上下（岩波文庫）』▽『金谷治著『孟子』（岩波新書）』

[参照項目] | 王道 | 四端 | 性悪説 | 性善説

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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