Military service

Japanese: 兵役制度 - へいえきせいど(英語表記)military service
Military service

Various forms of military service in the military. They stipulate the method of conscripting the necessary personnel for national defense, the period of military service, and the qualifications and obligations of reservists after military service. As a national system, they are generally stipulated by constitutions and laws. They are broadly divided into free military service and compulsory military service systems, but in modern times, volunteer and conscription systems are the mainstream.

Free military service is a system in which citizens serve of their own free will, without being forced to do so, and includes volunteer, volunteer, and mercenary systems. Volunteer military service is the most common military service system since modern times, and is a system in which eligible people are selected from those who volunteer of their own free will. While the intention to serve in the military is clear and it is possible to maintain high morale among soldiers, it has disadvantages such as the need to choose military service as a career, which is costly, and the difficulty of rapidly expanding military forces in times of emergency. Volunteer military service is a type of volunteer system in which citizens or sympathetic foreigners give up their careers and voluntarily serve in the military in times of war, etc. Mercenary service is a system in which citizens or foreigners are hired and forced to serve in the military mainly based on a financial contract, and is said to have originated in ancient Egypt and was widely practiced in the Middle Ages, but today it only remains in the form of the French Foreign Legion and the British Gurkhas in regular military forces. However, in the 21st century, the Afghanistan and Iraq wars gave rise to a number of private military and security companies (PMSCs), which provide military services as corporate structures. This can be considered a form of mercenaryism.

The compulsory military service system is also called the general military service system (called the mandatory military service system in Japan) because it enforces the military service obligation on the general public. It is a system that does not allow exemptions by privileges or monetary substitutes, and is divided into conscription and militia systems. Conscription imposes the obligation of military service on citizens by constitution or law, and forcibly conscripts those who are suitable for military service against their will and make them serve in the military. It is an optimal system for maintaining a large military force at low cost, but it has the disadvantage of placing a heavy burden on the economy and society because it binds young people to the military for a certain period of time. The militia system convenes citizens who are engaged in their daily jobs to join the military for a short period of time, where they undergo training and prepare for emergencies. It has the advantage of being a small standing army and not having much of a negative impact on the economy and society, but it is insufficient in terms of maintaining the training level of the troops and their readiness. Currently, Switzerland is a representative example of a country that has adopted a militia system, and the United States National Guard can also be traced back to militias. China's militias are considered a regular military branch and are used as auxiliary forces to the regular army. In France, the National Guard, a type of militia, was re-established in 2016 for the first time in 145 years since it was abolished in 1872 as an organization to assist the army, gendarmerie, and police in times of emergency in order to strengthen responses to terrorism.

Each country in the world has its own characteristics in the military service system adopted due to differences in the military environment, defense policy and domestic circumstances. The United Kingdom and the United States, which have historically respected the freedom of their citizens, and Japan, where conscription is prohibited by the constitution, adopted a volunteer military system, while socialist countries such as the former Soviet Union adopted conscription. Conscription was common during the Cold War in major Western European countries such as France and Germany, as well as neutral and many third world countries. However, in Europe, after the end of the Cold War and the sudden easing of military tension in the 1990s, many countries abolished conscription and moved to a volunteer military system. Many North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries and neutral Sweden abolished conscription. However, since 2010, some countries have reinstated conscription. Sweden, Lithuania, and Ukraine are considering whether to reinstate conscription due to the "Russian threat," while France is considering the "war on terror." Russia, which mainly uses conscription but also has a volunteer military system, intends to gradually increase the proportion of volunteers.

[Kameno Masao and Yamamoto Kazuhiro, February 18, 2019]

[References] | Military system | Volunteer system | Conscription system | Mercenaries

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

軍隊において兵士として軍務につく際のさまざまな形態。国防に必要な兵員を徴集する方法、軍務につく期間、軍隊での勤務を終えた後の予備役としての資格や義務などについて定められている。国の制度として憲法や法令によって規定されるのが一般的である。自由兵役制度と強制兵役制度に大別されるが、現代においては、それぞれ志願兵制と徴兵制が主流である。

 自由兵役制度は、強制によることなく国民が自由意志に基づき軍務につく制度であり、志願兵制、義勇兵制および傭兵(ようへい)制が含まれる。志願兵制は、近代以降もっとも一般的な兵役制度で、自由意志に基づいて志願する者のなかから兵役適格者を採用する制度である。兵役を勤める意志が明確であり、兵士達の士気を高く維持できる反面、兵役が職業として選択される必要があり高コストであること、有事に際して急速な兵力拡張がむずかしいといった欠点がある。義勇兵制は、戦時などの際に国民あるいは共鳴する意志をもつ外国人が、その職業を捨て、自ら進んで軍務に服するもので、志願兵制の一種である。傭兵制は、おもに金銭契約に基づいて自国民または外国人を雇用し、兵役につかせるもので、起源は古代エジプトといわれ、中世においても広く行われたが、現在、正規の軍隊ではフランス軍の外人部隊、イギリス軍のグルカ兵などにその姿をとどめるにすぎない。しかし、21世紀に入り、アフガニスタン戦争、イラク戦争をきっかけに、民間軍事会社(PMSC:private military and security company)とよばれる、軍事サービスを会社組織で請け負う企業が多く生まれた。これは傭兵制の一種とみなすことができる。

 強制兵役制度は、一般国民に兵役義務を強制する意味から一般兵役義務制(日本では必任義務制とよばれた)とも称される。特権による免除や金銭による代人制を認めない制度で、徴兵制と民兵制とに分けられる。徴兵制は、憲法や法律によって国民に兵役の義務を課し、その意志によらずに兵役に適する者を強制的に徴集して軍務に服せしめる制度である。大規模な兵力を低コストで維持するには最適の制度であるが、若者を一定期間軍隊に拘束するため、経済、社会に与える負担が大きいという難点がある。民兵制は、日常はおのおのの職業についている国民を招集して短期間軍隊に入隊させ、訓練を行い有事に備えるもので、常備軍が小規模ですみ、また経済社会にあまり悪影響を及ぼさないという長所があるが、部隊の練度の維持や即応性という点では不十分である。現在、民兵制を採用している代表例はスイスであり、アメリカ合衆国の州兵もその源をたどれば民兵に行き着く。また、中国の民兵は、正規の軍種に位置づけられ、正規軍の補助兵力として運用されている。フランスでは、2016年、テロへの対応を強化するため、1872年に廃止されて以来145年ぶりに民兵の一種である国民衛兵Garde nationaleが、有事に軍や憲兵隊、警察を補助する組織として再建された。

 世界各国では、その軍事環境、国防政策および国内事情の違いにより、採用する兵役制度はそれぞれの特徴をもっている。歴史的に国民の自由を尊重するイギリス、アメリカ合衆国、憲法で徴兵制が禁止されている日本などは、志願兵制を採用し、旧ソ連をはじめとする社会主義諸国は徴兵制を採用していた。フランス、ドイツなど西ヨーロッパの主要国、中立国および第三世界の多くの国々も冷戦時代は徴兵制が一般的であった。しかし、ヨーロッパにおいては、冷戦が終結し、軍事的緊張が一気に解けた1990年代以降、徴兵制を廃止し志願兵制に移行する国々が相次いだ。多くの北大西洋条約機構(NATO(ナトー))諸国と中立国のスウェーデンが徴兵制を廃止した。しかし、2010年以降、再度、徴兵制を復活させる国が出てきている。スウェーデン、リトアニア、ウクライナは「ロシアの脅威」を、フランスは「テロとの戦い」を理由として徴兵制の復活を決めるか検討している。徴兵制を主体に志願兵制を併用しているロシアは、徐々に志願兵の割合を増やす意向である。

[亀野邁夫・山本一寛 2019年2月18日]

[参照項目] | 軍制 | 志願兵制 | 徴兵制 | 傭兵

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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