Village system - Gosonsei

The Edo period rural system inherited the characteristics of the self-governing villages that were formed based on the Muromachi period so (sō), and the rural system. From the end of the 13th century to the 14th century, economic and political development in Kinai and its surrounding areas encouraged the independent development of small farmers under the manor system, leading to the dismantling of the myoden. As a result, the control of the feudal lords of manors and imperial territories became unstable, and the communal functions that they had controlled, such as the management of iriai land for water supply, were essentially transferred to the hands of powerful villagers and farmers, such as sosho (sōshō), sobyakusho (sōju), or sojū (sōchū), and this, combined with the payment of taxes by farmers and the receipt of jigeuke (jigeuke), encouraged the regional ties of farmers. This led to the formation of new villages based on soson (sōson), that is, goson, that went beyond the boundaries of manors.

Within the villages, the upper class peasants became representatives with titles such as head (otona), toshiyori, and satanin, and took control of the community's organization and functions. They managed the administration of the villages autonomously, while holding meetings, establishing village rules and regulations, implementing village administration by consensus, and framing the rising small peasants within the hierarchical order of the villages. On the other hand, they fought against the struggles for control of the villages by the shugo daimyo and kokujinshu, and the intensifying exploitation of the villages, through collective resistance such as goso and chosan, and through joint defense organizations such as tsuchiikki, which were formed by village alliances. This process also encouraged the powerful headman class, who were the leaders of the villages, to become warriors and small feudal lords.

The Shokuho government's policy of separating soldiers from farmers, typified by the land survey and sword hunt at the end of the 16th century, led some of the powerful headmen of villages to become vassals of feudal lords and to congregate in castle towns, while the majority of the remaining peasants were fixed into various peasant classes such as hon-hyakusho (main peasant), ko-hyakusho (small peasant), and genin (servant), and the old system of manors and villages was ultimately abolished by the "murakiri" (cutting villages). In this way, areas roughly equivalent to today's oaza (large aza) were formed as villages in the Edo period. Among the hon-hyakusho, powerful people and old families became headmen, village heads, and kimoiri (chiefs), and were in charge of village administration, and were assisted by group leaders. A peasant representative was placed to represent the interests of the peasants (the three local officials or local government officials). In this village, the communal functions seen in the former Sochu were inherited, all tributes were contracted out to the village, the total amount of rice produced was calculated as the village tax, the peasants were jointly charged as Takauke peasants (Nauke-nin), lawsuits, contracts, and loans were also done on a village basis, and within the village, a Gonin-gumi was created, which was the lowest level organization for monitoring each other and for collective responsibility for crimes. Village laws were also established, including village rules including regulations on membership and water use, and as communal organizations for production and life, Yui and Maki (family organizations for ceremonial occasions, etc.) that existed within them, and Miyaza (a group of relatives that had existed since the previous era as an organization for joint worship of the village's guardian deity), each of which played an important role in the communal functions of the village.

[Jiro Shimada]

"The Establishment of the Village System" by Shinpachi Sugimoto (included in "Shinko Dai Nihonshi Volume 12", 1942, Yuzankaku) " "The Formation of the Village System" by Yoshito Ishida (included in "Iwanami Lecture Series: Japanese History Middle Ages 4", 1963, Iwanami Shoten)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

室町時代の惣(そう)を母体に形成された相互扶助的自治村落、およびその性格を受け継いだ江戸時代の農村制度。13世紀末から14世紀に、畿内(きない)とその周辺では、その経済的、政治的発展により、荘園(しょうえん)制下の名主(みょうしゅ)以下の小農民の自立発展が促され、名田(みょうでん)の解体が進んだ。したがって荘園や公領の領主層の支配は動揺し、彼らの掌握していた用水入会(いりあい)地管理などの共同体的機能は、実質的に惣荘(そうしょう)、惣百姓(そうびゃくしょう)もしくは惣中(そうじゅう)などといわれた有力名主、百姓の手に移り、年貢の百姓請(うけ)、地下請(じげうけ)と相まって地域的な農民結合が促された。ここに荘園の枠を超えた、惣村を単位とする新しい村落、すなわち郷村が形成された。

　郷村内では、その上層農民は長（乙名）(おとな)、年寄(としより)、沙汰人(さたにん)などの名称で代表者となり、共同体的組織や機能を掌握。郷村行政を自治的に運営し、一方では寄合(よりあい)を開き、村掟(むらおきて)、置文(おきぶみ)を定め、合議制による村政を実施し、台頭する小農民を村内の階層的秩序のなかに枠づけていった。他方、守護大名、国人(こくじん)衆らの郷村支配をめぐる争いや、収奪の強化に対しては、強訴(ごうそ)、逃散(ちょうさん)などの集団的抵抗により、また土一揆(つちいっき)などの郷村連合による共同防衛組織によりこれらと戦った。この過程はまた郷村の指導者層たる有力名主層の武士化、小領主化を促した。

　16世紀末の検地(けんち)と刀狩(かたながり)に代表される織豊(しょくほう)政権の兵農分離政策で、郷村の有力名主層の一部は大名の家臣団化して城下町に集住し、残りの大部分の農民は、本(ほん)百姓、小(こ)百姓、下人(げにん)などの農民諸身分に固定化され、「村切り」によって荘、郷などの旧制度は最終的に否定された。こうしてほぼ現在の大字(おおあざ)にあたる地域が江戸時代の村として形成された。本百姓のうち、有力者や旧家が名主(なぬし)、庄屋(しょうや)、肝煎(きもいり)となり、村政を総括し、その下の組頭(くみがしら)がこれを補佐した。百姓の利益代表として百姓代が置かれた（地方(じかた)三役または地方役人）。この郷村では、かつての惣中にみられた共同体的機能を受け継ぎ、貢租のいっさいを村単位に請け負い、生産米総量を算出して村高とし、本百姓を高請(たかうけ)百姓（名請(なうけ)人）として連帯して負担させ、訴訟、契約、貸借も村単位とし、村内には五人組という農民相互の監視と犯罪に対する連帯責任の最末端組織がつくられた。また村ごとの入会、用水の規定を含んだ村掟などの村法を定め、さらに生産と生活の共同組織としては、その内部に存在した結(ゆい)、まき（冠婚葬祭などのための同族団組織）や、村の氏神の共同祭祀(さいし)組織としての前代以来の宮座(みやざ)も、郷村の重要な共同体機能の一部をそれぞれ担っている。

［島田次郎］

『杉本新八郎著「郷村制の成立」（『新講大日本史　第12巻』所収・1942・雄山閣）』▽『石田善人著「郷村制の形成」（『岩波講座　日本歴史　中世4』所収・1963・岩波書店）』

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