Buddha statue - Butsuzo

Japanese: 仏像 - ぶつぞう

A representation of the form of Buddha in painting, sculpture, or other formative forms. Strictly speaking, Buddha means Tathagata (Nyorai), and Buddhist statue means a statue of Tathagata, and other statues should be called Bodhisattva (Bosatsu) statues or Myo-o (Myo-o) statues, but nowadays, any sculpture related to Buddhism is broadly called a Buddha statue. Also, paintings of Buddha are generally called Buddhist paintings, and the term Buddha statue is usually limited to sculptures. The history of sculpture in Japan since the introduction of Buddhism has been dominated by Buddhist statues.

[Akio Sato]

Origin and development

Some say that statues of the Buddha have existed since the time of Shakyamuni, but statues of the Buddha did not appear until about 500 years after his death. In India, there was resistance to representing sacred things in human form, but this taboo was broken when Buddha statues were made around 100 AD during the Kushan dynasty, and it is thought that this began at roughly the same time in the Gandhara region of northwest India, which was influenced by Hellenistic culture, and the Mathura region of central India, which has a tradition of Indian plastic art.

The Gandhara style, influenced by Greek sculpture, traveled through the Western Regions to China, and then through Korea to reach Japan. Meanwhile, sculpture in the Mathura region differed from Gandharan sculpture in that it was full of volume and had the characteristics of excellent nude sculpture, and it was further developed and refined to produce the perfected Buddhist statues of the Gupta period from the mid-4th century to the mid-7th century. After this, Buddhist statues began to decline, and in the 8th century, during the Pala period, esoteric Buddhist statues became popular, but from around the 13th century, they rapidly disappeared along with Buddhism.

Heading north, the Gandharan Buddha statues passed through Afghanistan, entered the Western Regions, and then followed the Silk Road in reverse to reach China, leaving Buddhist ruins scattered in desert oasis cities. Buddhism was introduced to China in the first year of the Yuanshou era (2nd BC) under Emperor Ai of the Western Han Dynasty, and Buddhist statues are thought to have begun to be made in the middle of the 2nd century, but there is a gilt-bronze Buddha with an inscription from the 4th century, and these early statues clearly show the influence of Gandharan Buddhas. In 353, the Thousand Buddha Caves were built in Dunhuang, on the western edge of China, and many other caves were subsequently opened. There are also many ruins in the west, such as in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, and the famous Yungang Grottoes were constructed from the middle of the 5th century. At this time, Buddhist statues acquired Chinese-style expression and strength, and after passing through the Six Dynasties and Sui dynasties and entering the Tang dynasty, they transformed into statues with voluptuous bodies influenced by the Indian Gupta style. Japanese sculpture from the end of the Hakuho period to the Tenpyo period was certainly under this influence. After the Song dynasty, the production of Buddhist statues gradually declined.

Buddhism was introduced to the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period, from the end of the 4th century to the 5th century. Of the three kingdoms, Goguryeo adopted the northern Chinese style, while Baekje adopted the Jiangnan style, which was slightly further south. After Silla unified the peninsula, it was influenced by the Tang Dynasty and produced elegant works such as those found in Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju. After this period, like China, Buddhist sculpture in the Korean peninsula gradually declined.

Buddhism is said to have been officially introduced to Japan in 538 (the 4th year of Emperor Kinmei's reign), but it wasn't until the 7th century during the Asuka period that Buddhist statues began to be made in earnest in Japan, and at first, a symbolic style influenced by the Northern Wei style of China, such as the Shaka Triad at Horyu-ji Temple, was mainstream, but there are also elegant styles such as the Baekje Kannon statue at Horyu-ji Temple and the half-seated Bodhisattva at Chuguji Temple, as well as statues that are direct copies of Korean statues. In the second half of the 7th century, realistic and voluptuous expressions in the Tang Dynasty style became more common, and by the golden age of Tenpyo sculpture in the 8th century, the realistic tendency had become even stronger, and lively sculptural qualities were displayed.

Entering the Heian period, in the 9th century, the import of esoteric Buddhism and the popularity of wood carving led to a complete change in the character of Buddhist statues, which came to possess power and mysticism. From the 10th to 12th centuries, like other cultures, Buddhist statues also began to adopt a Japanese style, and the elegant Jocho style, such as the Seated Amida Nyorai statue in the Phoenix Hall of Byodo-in Temple, became popular. In the 13th century, during the Kamakura period, a restoration of the Tenpyo period was advocated, but in reality there was a pursuit of more realistic statues, such as the Nio statues at the Great South Gate of Todaiji Temple, which were different from the idealized realism of the Tenpyo period. Eventually, this realism also became formulaic, and although the number of statues created increased from around the 14th century during the Northern and Southern Courts period, it gradually declined and has not recovered since, to this day.

[Akio Sato]

Types and Characteristics of Buddhist Statues

The sutras describe a great number of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and the Mandala of Two Realms, which expresses the worldview of esoteric Buddhism, contains nearly 2,000 statues, but the statues that were actually created were only a few Tathagatas, such as Shaka and Amida, and even including bodhisattvas and below, the number is around 30. These Buddhist statues can be broadly categorized into Tathagatas, Bodhisattvas, Myo-o, Tenbu, Shinsho, etc., and sometimes monks and other figures are added.

[Akio Sato]

Tathagata

Tathagata is a Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word tathāgata, meaning one who has attained the truth or has attained enlightenment. The word Buddha refers to Buddha, and in primitive Buddhism, only Shakyamuni (Shaka) was Tathagata, but later the meaning expanded to include many statues and came to refer to all Tathagatas who were given the same deity status as Shakyamuni, and were organized into a series.

The appearance of the Tathagata is based on a human form, but it has thirty-two marks and eighty types of virtues (suitable for different forms), which are religious ideal characteristics that are different from humans.

Of the thirty-two features, those that can be expressed visually include the manmousou feature (webbed nets between the toes and fingers, which are used to save all living beings), the golden body feature (the entire body shines golden), the jokou feature (the light from the entire body creates a glow about one meter around the body. The halo is a visual representation of this), the chokei feature (also called the nikkei feature, which has a bowl-shaped mound of flesh on the top of the head), and the white hair feature (thin, curly white hair between the eyebrows. As this also shines, it is represented in sculpture by setting crystal in it). Other characteristics include the fact that each hair on his head is blue and curls to the right like a conch shell, and that there is a thousand-spoked wheel pattern on his palms and soles of his feet, similar to a ship's rudder. These thirty-two marks vary somewhat depending on the sutra, but the most common are those described in the "Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra," and the eighty kinds of virtues further define the thirty-two marks.

Since Nyorai are monks, unlike Bodhisattvas, they do not wear any accessories, and are often depicted simply wearing a single layer of robe (ho-e) over their skirts. There are two types of robe: tsuken, which covers both shoulders, and hendan-uken, which exposes the right shoulder. Tsuken is worn when going out on the road, while hendan-uken is worn indoors or for formal occasions, but in later times the two were confused and even seated statues have tsuken statues. However, only Dainichi Nyorai has the same appearance as Bodhisattvas, and there are also bodhisattva-style statues of early Shaka statues.

It is quite difficult to distinguish between Tathagata statues. As a rule, Tathagata do not hold anything in their hands, and only Yakushi Nyorai holds a medicine jar in his left hand (or occasionally in his right hand). Therefore, the only way to distinguish Tathagata is by the shape of their hands. This hand shape is called inzo.

[Akio Sato]

Shaka Nyorai

Shakyamuni is the founder of Buddhism, and a real person who died at the age of 80 after a long missionary career, but in Japan he is treated in the same category as the fictional Buddhas worshipped in Buddhism. In India he was worshipped in a more human form, and statues of Buddha were made and worshipped based on the Jataka stories, which are the biographies of Shakyamuni in this life and in his past lives. However, as Buddhism spread eastward, his character changed from that of a human Shakyamuni to that of Shakyamuni in Buddhism, simply as a single Tathagata. In Japan, the only Buddhist statues related to Shakyamuni's life are the birth Buddha, nirvana paintings and statues, paintings of Shakyamuni coming out of the mountain, and the appearance of a golden coffin, and there are almost no other statues. The only examples that specifically focus on the story of this life are two illustrations, "Seshinmonge" ("Ge to Hear the Offering of One's Body") and "Shashinshiko" ("Sacrificing One's Body to Feed a Tiger"), on the side of the base of the Tamamushi Shrine.

The most common hand mudras of Shakyamuni are those for giving fearlessness and for granting wish. Statues of the mudra for subduing demons are rare in Japan, but are common in India, China, and other regions. When Shakyamuni is preaching, he makes the "Turning the Wheel of Dharma" mudra, and when he is in zazen, he makes the "Zenjo" mudra or "Hokaijo" mudra. Even the same Shakyamuni statue may differ depending on the region, era, and sect, and the aforementioned mudras are not unique to Shakyamuni, and other Tathagatas may make the same mudras.

[Akio Sato]

Amitabha Buddha

Shakyamuni is a Buddha for one's own enlightenment, but Amida Tathagata is a Buddha who solves the problem of death that humans cannot avoid. The sutras teach that Amida Tathagata makes 48 vows and practices asceticism, and that he lives in the Pure Land, far away in the west, a hundred thousand billion worlds away, and comes to welcome people when their life is about to end (Raigo), and leads their souls to the Pure Land. To do this, one must devote oneself to Amida, practice chanting the name of Buddha, and accumulate merits. The Pure Land is the world where Buddhas live, and each Buddha has his own Pure Land, so there are as many Pure Lands as there are Buddhas, and people hope to be reborn in the Pure Land of the Buddha they believe in, but when people think of rebirth in the Pure Land, they are mainly thinking of Amida's rebirth in the Pure Land.

There are also nine ways for the Raigo to take place, from the highest to the lowest, depending on the merits of the deceased during their lifetime. In the highest level (Jobonjosho), Amida comes accompanied by two bodhisattvas, Kannon and Seishi, as well as 25 other bodhisattvas, playing music, but as you move to the middle and lower levels, the number of bodhisattvas decreases, and in the lower level Gebongesho, only Amida comes to welcome the deceased. Each of these nine levels (Kuhon) is represented by a different mudra.

The world of Amida is depicted in the Amida Pure Land Paintings, which can be seen in the murals on the walls of Horyu-ji Temple, thought to date from the early 8th century. Faith in Amida grew in the 9th and 10th centuries, primarily among the Tendai sect, and from the end of the Heian period onwards, the Jodo and Jodo Shinshu sects, which place faith in the sole Buddha Amida, became popular.

Amida's hand mudras include Amida's Join mudra (a meditation mudra, slightly different from Shakyamuni's; it corresponds to the upper-level three mudras), the same preaching mudra (a middle-level three mudras) as Shakyamuni, and the Raigo mudra (a lower-level three mudras) used when raising oneself to heaven.

The Amida statue is exactly the same as the Shaka statue, but the Gokoshuyui Amida statue is unusual in that it has long hair and a large spiral hair on its head, due to the long period of contemplation and training it has undergone in order to save all living beings. The Amida statue that is the principal image of the Tendai sect's Jōgyo-sanmai-do hall wears a jeweled crown, a topknot, and the collar of its robes is pulled down to its neck. The Shingon sect's Guhari Amida statue also wears a jeweled crown, a topknot, and vermilion robes.

[Akio Sato]

Medicine Buddha

Yakushi Nyorai is a Buddha related to medicine, and can be said to be a doctor of the human mind and body. Although he is a Buddha of worldly benefits, which is outside the original Buddhist enlightenment, he attracts a lot of faith for that very reason. Yakushi is the master of the world of Eastern Joruri, where wonderful music is always playing. The origin of the word "joruri" (music) can be found here. This Buddha is the only example of a Nyorai Buddha who holds a medicine jar in his hand. It is usually in the left hand, but there are some that hold it in the right hand, and some old statues from the Nara and Heian periods do not hold the medicine jar. In the triad format, the two bodhisattvas, Nikko and Gakko, are placed on either side, and the twelve heavenly generals, armed gods, are sometimes placed as guardian deities.

[Akio Sato]

Maitreya Buddha

Maitreya is often depicted as a half-seated bodhisattva in meditation, but is sometimes depicted in the form of a Tathagata. He descends to this world 5.67 billion years (or 7.65 billion years) after the death of Shakyamuni Buddha, and saves those who were not saved by Shakyamuni Buddha. At that time, he will assume the same Tathagata form as Shakyamuni Buddha, but until then, he will be thinking about how to save people in Tushita Heaven. This is the Maitreya Bodhisattva half-seated statue. This figure was considered to be a statue of the prince (Shakyamuni) in meditation in India and China, but it was introduced to Korea, where faith in Maitreya grew in Silla and Baekje, and was transmitted to Japan as a Maitreya statue in meditation. Most of the ancient Maitreya statues in Japan are half-seated bodhisattva statues, but in the Kamakura period, they are often worshiped as Tathagata statues. This is the result of the desires of people who are waiting for Maitreya's descent as soon as possible. There is no specific hand mudra for Maitreya, and he may take the same mudra of giving (giving fearlessness and wishing) as Shakyamuni, or the mudra of subduing demons or other mudras.

[Akio Sato]

Vairocana Buddha

He was a Buddha who was conceived after the Buddhas mentioned above, and just as Shakyamuni appeared in this world, Shakyamuni will appear in other worlds to save the people of those worlds. There are countless worlds, and there are countless Shakyamuni as well. It is said that Vairocana Buddha unites these many Shakyamuni and their worlds. The Vairocana Buddha (Great Buddha) at Todaiji Temple illustrates this well, with the lotus petals on the lotus throne consisting of two leaves, each of which is a world, and each of which has a Shakyamuni. The Great Buddha is in charge of them. This shows the grand view of the universe in Buddhism, as explained in the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Brahma Net Sutra.

[Akio Sato]

Vairocana

The idea of Vairocana Buddha was transferred directly to Esoteric Buddhism as Vairocana Buddha, who is the main deity of the mandala and the Buddha at the center of the universe. He is also known as Mahavairocana Buddha, with "maka" meaning "great," and can be said to be the Vairocana Buddha of Esoteric Buddhism.

The appearance and shape of Dainichi Nyorai is different from that of ordinary Buddhas, with a jeweled crown on his head and gorgeous ornaments on his chest and limbs, and is exactly the same as the Bodhisattva described below. It seems that Dainichi Nyorai is a Buddha different from ordinary Buddhas, that is, he is the King of Kings, but from the origin of this, there seems to be a more complicated reason.

There are two types of mandalas illustrating the esoteric Buddhist view of the universe: the "Vajrayana Mandala" and the "Womb Realm Mandala." The former was originally established from different sources, the "Vajrasekhara Sutra" and the latter from the "Mahavairocana Sutra." These two mandalas show the two opposing concepts of front and back, yin and yang, and cause and effect, with Mahavairocana at the center of each. Mahavairocana in the Vajrayana realm makes the Wisdom Fist Mudra, which is the pose just before acting. The statue of Mahavairocana in the Womb Realm sits on his knees in a zazen pose known as the Hokkai Jo Mudra.

[Akio Sato]

Bodhisattva

Bodhisattva is an abbreviation of bodhisattva, which means "one who seeks the path and practices" to become a Tathagata. If Tathagata is the central Buddha, then bodhisattva is the one who helps him, and if Tathagata is the one who preaches the doctrine, then bodhisattva is the one who is in charge of the practical side of it. In other words, we can think of them as those who will become Tathagata in the next era.

The bodhisattva is based on the appearance of a prince before Shakyamuni became a monk. Although Shakyamuni attained enlightenment and became a Tathagata, it is said that he was a bodhisattva before that. The bodhisattva's head is not made of spiral-shaped hair, but is made of normal hair tied in a topknot (hokei), with the remaining hair hanging down on his shoulders (suihatsu). In addition to the jeweled crown, he wears a necklace (kyoshoku) with tassels hanging down, which is called a yoraku. The upper half of his body is almost naked, with a strip of fabric (johaku) from the left shoulder to the right side of his waist, and a belt-like piece of fabric called a tenne that runs from his shoulders over both arms and hangs down to both hems. Around his waist he wears a skirt-like garment called a mo. This is the appearance of an Indian nobleman. Also belonging to this bodhisattva category is Jizo, who is represented in the form of a bhikkhu (monk).

Bodhisattvas are worshipped as single deities, but are often placed on either side of the Tathagata. The one in the center is called the central deity, and the ones serving it are called the side deities (wakiji/kyoji). Usually, they are arranged in a triad, and although there are exceptions, the combination of Tathagata and Bodhisattva is generally consistent. Even if the name of the central deity is unknown, it can be inferred from the side deities. The most common combinations are as follows:

Shaka Nyorai, Fugen Bodhisattva, Manjusri Bodhisattva, Amitabha Nyorai, Kannon Bodhisattva, Seishi Bodhisattva, Yakushi Nyorai, Nikko Bodhisattva, Gakko Bodhisattva, Maitreya Buddha, Hoonrin Bodhisattva, Daimyoso Bodhisattva, Vairocana Buddha, Kannon Bodhisattva, Kokuzo Bodhisattva [Sato Akio]

Kannon Bodhisattva

The correct name is Kannon Bodhisattva, and it is the most worshipped of all bodhisattvas. Kannon statues often wear a small statue of Amida on their crown or forehead as a sign, and hold a lotus flower. There are many types of Kannon, but the basis is Sho (Present) Kannon, which had the appearance of a normal human being with one head and two limbs before the Nara period, but it was believed that it needed many abilities and powers to save all living beings, and multi-faced, multi-armed statues were invented in esoteric Buddhism. Representative examples are Senju (Thousand-Armed) Kannon and Eleven-Headed Kannon. Such multi-faced, multi-armed Kannon began to be made as early as the Nara period, and Eleven-Headed Kannon is depicted on the wall paintings of Horyu-ji Temple. These are said to be transformed forms of Sho Kannon, so they are called Henge Kannon, and there are said to be 33 or 108 types.

The Thousand-Armed Kannon is a direct expression of this ability, with 10 or 11 bodhisattva heads on top of its head and 1000 hands, each with an eye, and is also known as the Thousand-Armed and Thousand-Eyed Kannon. Since having 1000 hands is difficult in terms of the balance of the sculpture, this is often omitted and depicted as 42. The hands that are clasped together are the original Kannon's, and each of the other 40 hands is equivalent to 25 hands. The Thousand-Armed Kannon statue in the Kondo Hall of Toshodaiji Temple is an example of a statue with 1000 hands, and several hundred of these still exist. The Thousand-Armed Kannon often has the Twenty-Eight Deities, the Wind God, and the Thunder God as its attendants.

Like the Thousand-Armed Kannon, the Eleven-Headed Kannon has a bodhisattva head on top of its head. Usually, the head of a Buddha is placed on top of the topknot, and the bodhisattva heads are placed around the topknot. There are some that have 10 faces on top of the head, counting 11 together with the real face (honmen), and some that have 11 faces just on the top of the head. There are also examples of the Twenty-Five-Headed Kannon, and the Nine-Headed Kannon at Horyuji Temple, which was brought over from the Tang Dynasty. There are also irregular examples, such as the statue at Doganji Temple in Shiga, which has one face each on either side of the main face and eight faces on top of the head.

Nyoirin Kannon has been considered an important statue in esoteric Buddhism, especially Shingon Buddhism, since the Heian period, and is depicted as a seated statue with six hands, one of which holds a wish-granting jewel, another a Dharma wheel, and the right leg raised on its knees. Both the wish-granting jewel and the Dharma wheel are symbols of Buddhism, and the Dharma wheel is a weapon used for throwing, and is an expression of one power. During the Nara period, statues with two arms and half-seated were also created.

The Avalokitesvara holds a kind of rope called a lasso in its hands, and uses this rope to save many people who are drowning in suffering. Its appearance varies depending on the scriptures, but it is generally depicted as a statue with three eyes and six arms. It is likened to a Kasuga deer because it has a deerskin wrapped around its shoulders, and it is said that the original Buddha of Kasuga Shrine (the theory that Japanese gods are variations of Indian Buddhas, and refers to the Buddha that became the source of them) is the Avalokitesvara, and it was revered as the guardian Buddha of the Fujiwara clan.

In later times, the horse-headed Kannon came to be worshipped as a prayer for the safety of horses and as a memorial for horses, but originally it was a bodhisattva who displayed great strength like a horse. It is likely that the legend of Vishnu, the supreme god of Hinduism, incarnated as a horse was also adopted by Buddhism. This Kannon is the only bodhisattva who asserts mercy to have a wrathful expression, because it was originally created as a Myo-o statue and then transformed into Kannon.

[Akio Sato]

Bodhisattva Seishi

Like Kannon, Seishi is an attendant of Amida, but while Kannon is on the right (left side), Seishi stands on the left (right side). His appearance is similar to Kannon, but while Kannon has a small Amida statue (a kebutsu) on his head, Seishi often has a water bottle. Unlike Kannon, Seishi is rarely worshipped as a single deity.

[Akio Sato]

Samantabhadra and Manjusri

These two bodhisattvas stand or sit on lotus thrones as attendants of Shaka Nyorai. Samantabhadra rides a white elephant, and Manjusri is often seen riding on a lion. According to the Lotus Sutra, Samantabhadra comes from the East riding on a six-tusked white elephant and is said to protect followers of the Lotus Sutra. Because the Lotus Sutra preaches about women's rebirth in the Pure Land, Samantabhadra was also worshipped alone as a Buddha for women. Some are accompanied by ten goddesses known as the Ten Rakshasas. A variation of Samantabhadra is Samantabhadra Enmei Bodhisattva, who has two or twenty arms and rides on a one-body, three-headed elephant, with a wheel of jewels beneath it, supported by 500 elephants.

Manjusri Bodhisattva is commonly known as Manjusri of Wisdom, and is in charge of reason. Many Manjusri statues are of him riding a lion and crossing the sea accompanied by four attendants. He is also often made in the form of a young boy, or Chigo Manjusri, to symbolize Manjusri's pure reason, and is also made in the form of an old monk, known as Shoso Manjusri. Depending on the number of topknots on his head, there are Manjusri with one, five, six, or eight topknots. He holds a sword and a box (bonkyo) containing sutras, and sometimes the box is placed on a lotus flower, or a weapon called a vajra instead of a sword. All of these are symbols of wisdom.

[Akio Sato]

Nikko and Gekko Bodhisattva

These two are attendants of Yakushi Nyorai and few are single deities. It is difficult to distinguish them from other bodhisattvas, but they sometimes hold lotus flowers and place sun and moon disks on top of the flowers, but this is not always the case.

[Akio Sato]

Maitreya Bodhisattva

Maitreya statues are depicted in the form of a bodhisattva, and most are depicted in a pensive pose, but there are also examples in which the statue is in the form of a regular seated bodhisattva, holding a tower in its hand, which is considered a symbol of Maitreya.

[Akio Sato]

Jizo Bodhisattva

Some are depicted in monk form wearing a robe. It is believed that he has the role of saving all living beings during the long period of the Latter Days of the Law, from the death of Shakyamuni to the appearance of Maitreya, and he has attracted the faith of the masses. His salvation extends to children who do not know faith, so he is also the guardian Buddha of children. Furthermore, Rokudo Jizo and Rokujizo save people from the frightening worlds of hell and the six realms, and this evolved into the Jizo at the crossroads, who act as a guide and signpost. After the Kamakura period, he was considered to be the same as King Enma, and is often carved together with the Ten Kings of Enma. Until the Heian period, most statues held a jewel in their left hand and their right hand lowered to show their palm, but after the Kamakura period, many statues held a shakujo in their right hand. Although it is a rare example, the eleven-faced Kannon statue at Hasedera Temple in Nara is said to be a combined statue with Jizo, and holds a shakujo in its right hand.

[Akio Sato]

Kokuzo Bodhisattva

As the name suggests, it is the deification of the void, and its appearance and possessions are not fixed. As a belief in the void, there is Myoken Bosatsu, the deification of the Big Dipper.

[Akio Sato]

Myo-o

Statues of Myo-o absorbed the gods of ancient Indian Brahmanism, and later became important statues in esoteric Buddhism. They are messengers of Buddha with great power, and their wrathful expressions destroy evil. Tathagata sometimes saves all living beings as a gentle bodhisattva, and sometimes takes on a fearsome appearance like Myo-o, guiding people to the Buddhist teachings by force. Most statues have strange appearances, with many faces, many arms, many eyes, and many legs.

[Akio Sato]

Acala

Only Acala has a human appearance, holding a Kurikara sword in his right hand and a lasso in his left. He wears a flame-shaped halo on his back and sits on a rock or on a Shitushitsu seat, which symbolizes a rock. There are many seated statues in the early Heian period, but from the middle of the Heian period, standing statues were also made. He is topless with only a cloth wrapped around his waist, which is based on the appearance of an Indian slave.

[Akio Sato]

King Gosanze

It has three faces and eight arms, and has statues of men and women under its feet. These are the Hindu god Shiva (Daijizaiten) and his wife Uma, symbols of evil. Acala is Shiva that was adopted into Buddhism, but here Shiva is shown as having been conquered, which is due to the differences in the time and ideology in which these deities were adopted into Buddhism. Six of the eight hands hold weapons such as a bow, arrow, or sword, and the other two are in a prayer mudra with their little fingers intertwined in front of their chest.

[Akio Sato]

King Gundari

He has three eyes, eight arms, a terrifying expression, and snakes wrapped around both his arms and legs.

[Akio Sato]

King Daiitoku

He rides on a bull and is called Sokuson, a six-legged statue with six faces, six arms and six legs. He usually sits on a seated bull, but there are also statues that stand on one leg as if dancing on a galloping bull.

[Akio Sato]

Vajrayana

It has three faces and six arms, and its front face has five eyes.

The five statues above, centered on Acala, are also called the Five Great Myo-o (Five Great Deities), and were widely known as guardian deities of the nation, as well as deities who protect individuals and drive away evil spirits, bringing benefits in this world. During the Heian and Kamakura periods, people would offer prayers to the Five Great Myo-o for safe childbirth.

[Akio Sato]

Aizen Myoo

Due to its name and the appearance of holding a bow and arrow, it is often mistaken for the same character as the Western Cupid, but in fact it is the opposite, and it has the power to suppress lust, which is an obstacle to training, and to change one's mind to a pure and righteous bodhi mind. His body color and halo are crimson, he wears a lion's crown on his head, and he has six arms. His faith in him increased from the mid-Heian period, but relics are only found from the Kamakura period onwards.

[Akio Sato]

Peacock King

He was the earliest of the Myo-o to be created, and statues of him were made in Japan during the Nara period. He is the deification of the peacock, which eats evil insects and poisonous snakes, and it was believed that his powers were useful in subduing demons. He is seated on a peacock throne with his wings spread, and his gentle, bodhisattva-like appearance is rare for a Myo-o statue.

[Akio Sato]

Heavenly Beings and Divine Generals

The statues of the heavenly beings and divine generals are gods that have been absorbed from other Indian religions that existed before the establishment of Buddhism, and many of them are natural gods. These include Taishakuten (Indra the thunder god), Bonten (Brahma the god who governs the highest principle of the universe), Kichijoten (the goddess of fortune), and Benzaiten (the god of the sea and goddess of music, fortune, and prosperity), and the Four Heavenly Kings and the Twelve Heavenly Generals are also guardian deities that belong to this category. There are many types of heavenly beings, including secular forms, armed ones, and those wearing crowns and helmets, and the clothing and poses are also diverse, and the heavenly beings are the only Buddhist statues that include female figures. Many of the divine generals are armed and wrathful. Other statues that fall under this category include statues of demons (such as the Eight Guardian Deities of Heavenly Dragon), sumo wrestlers (such as Kongo Rikishi), and children (such as Seitaka-doji and Kongara-doji who follow Acala).

[Akio Sato]

Bhikkhu

Bhikku are Buddhist monks with shaved heads, and most are statues of Buddhist founders or high priests, but some, such as Jizo Bodhisattva, belong to this category in terms of form. There are also statues called Suijaku statues, which are derived from the idea of syncretism between Shinto and Buddhism, such as Zao Gongen, a sacred statue in Shugendo, and Sogata Hachiman.

[Akio Sato]

Classification by posture and size

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The lying image is a lying-down image, and is limited to nirvana statues.

According to the sutras, the height of the Buddha is 1 jo 6 shaku (approx. 4.8 meters), and based on this dimension, this is called a jo 6 shaku statue, and in a standing image it is as 1 jo 6 shaku, and in a seat image it is half the eight shaku statue, and in a seat image it is 1 jo 6 shaku, so it is called a jo 6 shaku statue. Images can be made with a size that is several times greater than this jo 6 shaku, or a size that is slightly smaller. For example, a half 6 ro 6 statue is called a standing image of 8 shaku and a seat image of 4 shaku. In addition, there are five standing images (approx. 1.5 meters), and two shaku five shaku (approx. 76 centimeters), which are based on the body of a human, and special ones include a crucifixion statue of 1 shaku 2 to 1 shaku 8 shaku (approx. 36 to 54 centimeters), a five-point dot (a crucifixion is the dimension from the wrist to the elbow), and a five-point dot (approx. 10.6 centimeters).

[Akio Sato]

Hand stamp

In Buddhism, especially in Esoteric Buddhism, there are many statues, and hand stamps are specified accordingly. At first, it was not very strict, but since esoteric Buddhism began to embrace Hindu events and placed importance on seal contracts, it was detailed. In Esoteric Buddhism, hundreds of hand stamps are recorded, and different localities are carried out in India, Tibet, and China. The main items of hand stamps are as follows.

(1) Amida's signature seal It is also known as the Amida Buddha's Zen seal. It is a shape in which the right hand is stacked in the left hand, the index finger is raised, and the thumb is placed on the finger.

(2) Sermon stamp (Turning Falun stamp) Falun means truth, and to turn this means preaching.

(3) Rokuroku (comfort seal) Rokurokuroku's seal of Amida is the Rokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokurokuroku

(4) The Nine Temples of Amida (Kuhon) Instruments of Amida There are nine ways to go to paradise depending on the actions taken during his lifetime, and Amida is also welcomed differently, and there are nine types of seals based on (1) to (3) above. These are the Nine Temples.

(5) Semui (Senu) Sign A seal that means to stop and rescue all the various fears of all sentient beings, and is usually used in combination with the Semui (Senuine) stamp.

(6) Granting seal This represents the Buddha's ability to give alms to the public by wishing. It is also called the alms and the alms of the alms, along with the alms and the alms.

(7) Hokai Manufacturer's Stamp (Zen stamp) A stamp tied during zazen. It is common in Shakyamuni Buddha and Taizo Dainichi Buddha. The shape of the Amida stamp is not raised.

(8) Chiken seal The seal of the Great Nyorai Buddha of the Kongo world. It is said that by tying this mark, you can erase the worldly desires of this world and enter the wisdom of Buddha.

(9) Palm stamps are made with various types of palms, including Kongo-palm, solid-palm pairing, shashu-palm pairing, and Kimyo-palm pairing.

(10) Gouma Sign (Shiji, Shokuchi Sign) This is the mark when the demon, one of the eight states of Shakyamuni, or Shakyamuni, surrendered the six heavens of the desire world that tried to hinder them, when they tried to protest enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, and was hardly made in Japan as a single statue.

[Akio Sato]

Contract

Just like hand seals, each object has its meaning. For example, the lotus flowers of the Holy Kannon Bodhisattva means "a great tragic object, no staining or sorrow," and is a symbol of great mercy. Manjusri Bodhisattva often removes the worldly desires of sentient beings with a sword, and the sutras represent immeasurable wisdom. Other important items include the water bottle and lotus flowers of the eleven-faced Kannon, the jewels and staff of Jizo Bodhisattva, the auspicious fruit of the Kishimojin, the sermon staff of the Katen, the palace and weapons of the Thousand-Armed Kannon, the sword and cousin of Fudo Myo-o, the archery and pagoda of Aizen Myo-o, and the treasure pagoda of Tamon Ten (Bishamon Ten). The objects possessed by each monk are different, so images can be distinguished by this.

[Akio Sato]

Creating Buddha statues

Materials and Techniques

Most of the time in Japan is made of wood, but metal, dried lacquer, earthenware, stone, and rarely paper are also used.

[Akio Sato]

wooden

Cypress is overwhelmingly common, and other materials are thinner depending on the era and region. In the 7th century, Asuka and Hakuho, camphor trees are more common. In the 8th century, dry lacquer and earthen clay were used, and although there are few wood carvings, cypress was used for the core wood of dried lacquer and lacquer statues. In the 9th century, wood carving became the mainstream of statues, and cypress was mainly used. During this period, Buddhism spread to the provinces of the region, and distinctive materials were used in various places. In the Kanto and Tohoku, there are many camphor trees and kaya in Kyushu. Unusual materials include sandalwood statues using sandalwood and sandalwood, which are made from sandalwood, sandalwood, and sandalwood.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Many of the woodworks were made from the Asuka period to the Heian period.

The marbled wood is a structure made up of two or more timbers, both front and back, and the trunks, such as the head and body, and the pioneer of the marble was the Fudo Myo-o statue in Dojuin, Kyoto, which is estimated to have been made in 1006 (Kanhiro 3). This is a statue of Fudo Myo-o, Kyoto, which is thought to have been made in 1006 (Kanhiro 3). The trunks are combined from the front and back, left and right like boxes, and the back material is further divided into left and right, with large internal parts being applied inside. The marbled wood was further advanced in the 12th century, with the head and body being made of separate materials, and many other materials were combined to make it even more useful. In this way, even a large statue does not require huge wood like a wooden structure, and by adding deep timber, the weight can be reduced, and division of labor was also possible, making it possible to accommodate orders for the large statues of the late Heian period. These rules for the way marbled wood are brought into the wood are called the Kiyose or Marbled wood.

Another technique for carving wood is the slitting. In the middle of the process of making a wooden structure, the statue is separated by chisels on the front and back, or left and right, and then a large piece is applied to the interior, and then finished again. Furthermore, the separation of the head and body is called slitting. The slitting is an intermediate technique between single wooden structure and parquet. The deep inner space is created while retaining the volume and texture of single wooden structure, making it a convenient method for local Buddhist sculptors who cannot mobilize a large number of engineers, and it has been used for a long time since the late Heian period, when parquet became popular.

In the 12th century, a gyokugan was also devised using the inner part of this parquet to place a crystal on the statue's eyes from the back, giving it a glow-like glow like a human eye.

The lacquer foil, coloring, and kirikane are used to finish the statue. The lacquer foil of the statue after the carving is completed is carved into thin grooves, stuffed with "Kokuso lacquer" (a mixture of wood powder and macous lacquer) to keep the lacquer foil foil foil foil foil is made by lacquer lacquer from above, folding it with a base lacquer made of whetstone mixed with tonosoh, grinding it up with a whetstone, then applying lacquer several times, and then applying gold leaf with lacquer. In the case of coloring, white clay or gofun is applied as the base, then coloring it on top, or kindei is applied all over the body. In the sandalwood statues, sculptures that mimic the wind, hatchet carvings that emphasize the chisel eyes, and standing wood Buddhas, the eyes, eyebrows, and beards are tinted with ink, vermilion is applied to the lips, and the rest is kept as woody.

There is also a technique called cut gold (cut gold) and a technique in which patterns are drawn using thin lines of gold leaf after coloring, and the skilled craftsman Kaikei of the early Kamakura period was a skilled technique for applying a pattern like embroidery to the robe of a Buddhist statue, and the pattern is raised with gofun. This technique includes a technique called domon, in which clay is added with glue (nikawa) added to the clay into a mold, and patterns such as flowers, leaves, and dharma rings are created, and before it dries, the Buddhist statue's robe is pasted with lacquer before it dries. Examples can be seen in statues from the late Kamakura period to the Nanboku-cho and Muromachi periods.

[Akio Sato]

Metal construction

It is mainly made from gold, silver, copper, and iron, and there are rare cases of brass statues. Techniques include castings, batting objects (forged), and carvings. Gold Buddha was found in Shosoin documents in the Nara period, and although there are records of it being made in the Fujiwara period, there are very few that exist. Silver statues are from the Nara period, such as the arm of a Buddha statue that appears to be a life-like figure discovered at the Tokondo Hall of Kofukuji Temple, and the jewel Buddha of the statue of the Fukukenjakukannon statue of Todaiji Temple, the crown of the Fukukenjakukannon statue of Todaiji Temple, and the Amida Buddha statue (Kamakura period) at Jogonin Temple in Shiga. However, during the Fujiwara period, the color tone was prized, and in records there are more articles about silver Buddha being produced than Kondo Buddha.

Images of copper castings are usually gold plated, so they are called gold-brow Buddhas. They are alloys with tin and lead, which are similar to current bronze, and their components are not constant. The casting methods for gold-brow Buddhas can be roughly divided into two categories. One is wax casting, and most of the gold-brow Buddhas in the Asuka and Nara periods are this. The other is a rikome type that takes the external mold (female mold) from the prototype of wood or earth. When a cavity is removed, a medium-sized mold is placed one size smaller and medium-sized mold is poured between the two. The image thus created is repaired to repair the damaged part, the surface is cleanly scraped with a chisel, polished, and mercury plated (amalgam plated), and the hair, brows, lips, and garments are also colored. In addition, extruded Buddhas, which were placed on a prototype and cast copper plates with hammers, were popular in the 7th and 8th centuries, and iron-cast iron-butsu was also popular in eastern Japan after the Kamakura period.

[Akio Sato]

Dried lacquer

It is a unique Eastern lacquer material, and techniques were imported from China around the 7th century. There are two types of dried lacquer statues, one of which is made of dakkatsu dry lacquer (de-dried lacquer), which is made of clay to create the rough shape of the statue, and seven or eight pieces of lacquer are layered on top of it, and when the shape is formed, the soil inside is scraped out from wood, the hollow frame is made of wood, and the surface is covered with lacquer foil and colored. These are the statues of Todaiji Sangatsudo Fukuzo Kannon, the statue of Eight Bestos and the Ten Great Disciples of Kofukuji Temple. The other is called mokushin dry lacquer, which is roughly made of wood, and the lacquer lacquer is applied to express the details. Some statues are finished with wood, and are painted with very thin lacquer lacquer. The plasticity of materials became popular in line with the realistic style of the Nara period, but it gradually declined because it was laborious and expensive.

[Akio Sato]

Plastic construction

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The details may be made of wire wrapped around the linen as the core. The finishing touch is colored or lacquer foil. It was popular in the Nara period, and was popular as it is said to be suitable for realistic expression, and has retained masterpieces such as the statues of the five-story pagoda of Horyuji Temple, the statues of the Nikko and Moonlight, the statues of the Hokke-do of Todaiji Temple, the statues of the Shikkongo-shin, and the statues of the Four Heavenly Kings of Kaidan-in, but there are few other periods, and there are only a few examples of portrait sculptures from the Kamakura period. These dry lacquer statues and statues have been made of obsidian or glass beads on the eyes, like the king eyes of later generations.

[Akio Sato]

Stone construction

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The stone Buddha group in Otani, Tochigi Prefecture is carved into tuffed Otani stone, and the surface is finished with lacquer food. During the Kamakura period, stone Buddha building became more popular with the popularization of Buddhism, but its size was small and there were many round-carved statues. After the Kamakura period, it has been seen throughout Japan, and various stone materials such as granite rock, andesite, tuff, and sandstone, but there are few works that are artistically impressive.

[Akio Sato]

Order of Buddha-building

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do A majestic offering is then given, and an eye-opening memorial service is held on a lucky day and the eyes are opened to the statue's eyes. The largest memorial service in Japan was the eye-opening meeting of the Rushana Buddha (the Great Buddha) of Todaiji Temple in April 752 (Tenpyo Shoho 4), and is said to be 10,000 memorial services for the memorial service to attend.

When building Buddha or repairing Buddhas, the statue or part of the body of the statue or attachment, including the name of the Buddhist sculptor, the applicant, and the chronology, are called image-making inscriptions, and are important as direct material for the statue. They can vary in formats, and some of them contain the process of the statue and sutras, and sometimes only a very simple chronology. For metal and stone statues, the place of entry is instinct or yang on the back of the Buddha body, the back of the halo, or the outer surface of the pedestal. Wood carvings are in ink or red on the inside of the womb, inside the pedestal, the back of the lotus valve, the back of the halo, and the tenon (tensole). In addition, the womb of a Buddha statue may contain various items such as small Buddha statues (inside the womb), sutra, inscription cards, and other remains of the deceased, as well as five grains and mirrors.

Decorating a Buddhist statue or a Buddhist hall is called majestic, and the equipment is called majestic equipment. These include the majestic equipment directly attached to the Buddha's body, and majestic equipment separate from the Buddha's body. The halo also represents the light emitted from the Buddha's body, and a halo is always attached to a complete Buddha statue. Though halo is not strictly a majestic equipment, it can be considered as a majestic equipment from the statue's method.

[Akio Sato]

"Mochizuki Nobunari, Sawa Takaken, et al., "Pre-made Buddha Statues - Hearts and the like" (1971, Nippon Broadcasting Publishing Association)" ▽ "Minami Hitoshi Yoshimyo, "Inquiries about Buddhist statues - Encyclopedia of Japanese Buddhist statues" (1972, Bunshindo)" ▽ "Kinokaku Ken, "Buddha Statues" (1975, Tokyodo Publishing)" ▽ "Kinokaku Akio, "For those who see Buddhist statues" (1979, Tamagawa University Press)" ▽ "Machida Koichi, "Buddha Statues - On their meaning, history and beauty" (1979, Jitsugyo no Nihonsha)" ▽ "Jitsugyo Jiro Sugiyama (1984, Kashiwa Shobo)" ▽ "Kinokaku Ken, "Buddha Statues Collection 3: Japanese Buddhist Statues" (1985, Studentsha)" ▽ "Kinokaku Ken, "Dictionary of Oriental Buddhist Statues" (1986, Tokyodo Publishing)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

仏陀(ぶっだ)の形を絵画、彫刻その他の造形形式によって表現したもの。厳密には仏(ぶつ)とは如来(にょらい)のことで、仏像とは如来像を意味し、ほかの像は菩薩(ぼさつ)像、明王(みょうおう)像などとよぶべきだが、現在では仏教関係の彫像を広く仏像といっている。また絵画で表現されたものは一般に仏画といい、仏像といえば彫像に限るのが普通である。仏教伝来以後の日本の彫刻の歴史はほとんど仏像によって占められている。

［佐藤昭夫］

起源と展開

仏像は釈迦(しゃか)在世当時からあったとする説もあるが、仏像が現れるのは仏滅後500年ほど経てからである。インドでは聖なるものを人間の形で表すことに抵抗があったが、このタブーを破って仏像がつくられたのはクシャン朝の紀元後100年ごろで、ヘレニズム文化の洗礼を受けた西北インドのガンダーラ地方と、インドの造形美術の伝統がある中インドのマトゥラ地方でほぼ同時期に始まったと考えられる。

　ギリシア彫刻の影響を受けたガンダーラ様式は、西域(せいいき)を経て中国に入り、朝鮮を通って日本にも達した。一方、マトゥラ地方の彫刻はガンダーラ彫刻と異なり、量感に富み、優れた裸体彫刻の特色を備えていたが、さらに発達、洗練されて4世紀なかばから7世紀なかばにかけてグプタ期の完成した仏像をつくりあげた。以後は仏像は衰えをみせ、8世紀に入ってパーラ期にいったん密教像が盛んとなるが、13世紀ごろから仏教とともに急激に消滅する。

　北へ向かったガンダーラの仏像はアフガニスタンを経て西域に入り、シルク・ロードを逆にたどって砂漠のオアシス都市に点々と仏教遺跡を残して中国に達した。仏教が中国に伝えられたのは前漢の哀帝の元寿元年（前2）、仏像がつくられ始めたのは2世紀の中ごろと考えられるが、4世紀の銘のある金銅(こんどう)仏があり、こうした初期の像にはガンダーラ仏の影響がはっきり残されている。353年に中国の西端敦煌(とんこう)に千仏洞がつくられ、その後多くの石窟(せっくつ)が開かれた。陝西(せんせい)省、甘粛(かんしゅく)省など西方にも多くの遺跡があり、有名な雲崗(うんこう)石窟は5世紀なかばからの経営である。このころになると、仏像は中国的な表現と力強さを備え、六朝(りくちょう)、隋(ずい)を経て唐に入ると、インドのグプタ様式の影響を受けた豊満な肉体をもつ像に変貌(へんぼう)する。日本の白鳳(はくほう)末から天平(てんぴょう)期の彫刻はまさにその影響下にある。宋(そう)代以後、仏像制作はしだいに衰えていった。

　朝鮮半島に仏教が入ったのは三国時代、4世紀末から5世紀にかけてのことで、3国のうち高句麗(こうくり)は中国の北方様式を受け、百済(くだら)はやや南の江南の様式を取り入れた。新羅(しらぎ)の半島統一以後は、唐の影響を受けて慶州の石窟庵(あん)の像にみられるような優美な作品を残している。この時期以後は中国と同様、朝鮮半島の仏像彫刻もしだいに衰えていく。

　仏教の日本公伝は538年（欽明天皇4）とされるが、仏像が日本で本格的につくられるようになったのは飛鳥(あすか)時代も7世紀に近くなってからで、最初は法隆寺釈迦三尊像のような中国北魏(ほくぎ)の様式を受けた象徴的な作風が主流であったが、別に法隆寺百済観音(かんのん)像や中宮寺菩薩半跏(はんか)像のような優美な系統や、朝鮮の直模のような像もみられる。7世紀後半になると、唐風の写実的で豊満な表現になり、やがて8世紀の天平彫刻の黄金時代を迎えると、写実的傾向はさらに強くなり、生き生きした彫刻性が発揮された。

　平安時代に入り、9世紀には密教の輸入、木彫の流行によって仏像の性格が一変し、威力と神秘性を備えるようになる。10～12世紀に至って他の文化と同様に仏像にも和風化傾向がおこり、平等院鳳凰(ほうおう)堂阿弥陀如来坐像(あみだにょらいざぞう)のような典麗な定朝(じょうちょう)様式が流行した。鎌倉時代の13世紀には天平復古が唱えられたが、実際には天平の理想化された写実とは異質の、東大寺南大門の仁王(におう)像のような現実的なものへの追求がみられる。やがてこの写実主義も形式化し、南北朝の14世紀ごろから造像量は多くなるものの、しだいに衰退してその後は息を吹き返すことなく、今日に至っている。

［佐藤昭夫］

仏像の種類と特徴

経典には非常に多くの仏菩薩(ぶつぼさつ)が説かれ、密教における世界観を表現した「両界曼荼羅(りょうかいまんだら)図」にも2000体近い像が描かれているが、実際に造像されるのは、如来(にょらい)では釈迦(しゃか)、阿弥陀(あみだ)など数尊にすぎず、菩薩以下を含めても30尊程度である。それらの仏像を大別すると、如来、菩薩、明王(みょうおう)、天部(てんぶ)、神将(しんしょう)などで、これに比丘形(びくぎょう)などを加える場合もある。

［佐藤昭夫］

如来

如来とは梵語(ぼんご)のtathāgataの漢訳で、真理の体得者、悟りを開いた者の意である。仏という語はブッダ（仏陀Buddha）をさし、原始仏教では釈尊(しゃくそん)、つまり釈迦だけが如来であったが、のちには意味を拡大して、多くの像が加わって、釈尊と同列の神格を与えられた如来全般をさすようになり、系列化された。

　如来の姿は人間の形を基本とし、これに三十二相八十種好(しゅごう)（随形好(ずいぎょうごう)）と称する、人間とは違った宗教上の理想的な特色をもつ。

　三十二相のうち造形的に表現しうるものは、縵網相(まんもうそう)（手足の指の間の水かき様の網。これで衆生を救い上げる）、身金色(しんこんじき)相（全身が金色に輝く）、丈光(じょうこう)相（全身の光によって身体の周囲に一丈の余光が輝く。光背(こうはい)はこれを形象化したもの）、頂髻(ちょうけい)相（肉髻(にっけい)相ともいい、頭頂に椀(わん)のような肉の盛り上がりがある）、白毫(びゃくごう)相（眉間(みけん)の白く細い巻毛。これも光り輝くので彫刻では水晶をはめ込んで表す）などである。このほかにも、頭髪は1本ずつ巻き貝のように右巻き（螺髪(らほつ)）で青色をしており、掌(てのひら)と足の裏には船の舵輪(だりん)のような千輻輪(せんぷくりん)という文様がある、などの特色がある。この三十二相は経典により多少異なり、一定していないが、もっとも普遍的なのは『大智度論(だいちどろん)』に説くもので、八十種好は三十二相をさらに細かく規定したものである。

　如来は出家の姿なので、菩薩とは違って装身具はいっさい着けず、基本的には裳(も)の上に1枚の衲衣(のうえ)（法衣(ほうえ)）をまとっただけの姿が多い。衲衣は通肩(つうけん)といって両肩を覆う着法と、偏袒右肩(へんだんうけん)という右肩を露(あらわ)すものとがある。通肩は外出遊行の場合、偏袒右肩は屋内とか礼装の場合だが、後世には混同されて坐像(ざぞう)でも通肩の像がある。ただし大日(だいにち)如来だけは菩薩と同様の姿をとり、初期の釈迦像にも菩薩形のものがある。

　如来像どうしの区別はなかなかむずかしい。如来は原則として手に何も持たず、わずかに薬師如来が左手（まれに右手）に薬壺(やくこ)を持つだけである。したがって、如来は手の形で区別するしかない。この手の形を印相(いんぞう)という。

［佐藤昭夫］

釈迦如来

釈迦は仏教の開祖で、長い布教生活ののち80歳の生涯を終えた実在の人物だが、日本では仏教で信仰される架空の仏たちと同列に扱われる。インドではもっと人間的な形で信仰され、釈迦の現世の伝記および前世における伝記の本生譚(ほんじょうたん)（ジャータカ）によって仏像がつくられ、礼拝(らいはい)された。しかし仏教東漸の過程で、人間釈迦としてよりも、仏法のなかの釈迦、単なる一如来へと性格が変わる。日本で釈迦伝関係の仏像といえば、誕生仏、涅槃(ねはん)図や涅槃像、絵画で出山(しゅっせん)釈迦、金棺出現くらいで、それ以外はほとんどない。とくに本生譚を取り上げたものは玉虫厨子(たまむしずし)台座の側面の「施身聞偈(せしんもんげ)」「捨身飼虎(しゃしんしこ)」の2図の例があるのみである。

　釈迦の手印でいちばん多いのは施無畏(せむい)、与願(よがん)の印である。降魔(ごうま)印の像は日本では少ないが、インド、中国などでは多い。釈迦説法の姿は転法輪(てんぽうりん)印、坐禅(ざぜん)の姿は禅定(ぜんじょう)印あるいは法界定(ほうかいじょう)印を結ぶ。同じ釈迦像でも地域、時代、宗派によって異なる場合があり、前述の印も釈迦固有ではなく、他の如来が同じ印を結んでいることもある。

［佐藤昭夫］

阿弥陀如来

釈迦は自らの悟りのための仏であるが、阿弥陀如来は人間が免れえぬ死の問題を解決してくれる仏である。阿弥陀如来は四十八願という多くの願をたて修行を積んで、西方はるか十万億土のかなた極楽浄土にあり、人の生命が終わろうとするとき迎えに来て（来迎(らいごう)）、その魂を極楽に導くと経典は説いている。そのためには、阿弥陀への帰依(きえ)、念仏修行や功徳(くどく)を積み重ねることが必要とされる。浄土とは仏の住む世界で、一つの仏がそれぞれ浄土をもっており、したがって仏の数だけ浄土もあるので、人はそれぞれ自らの信ずる仏の浄土へ往生することを願うわけだが、浄土往生といえば阿弥陀の極楽往生がもっぱらとなっている。

　来迎のあり方にも、死者の生前の功徳によって、上の上から下の下まで九通りがある。上の上（上品上生(じょうぼんじょうしょう)）の場合は阿弥陀が観音(かんのん)・勢至(せいし)の2菩薩のほか25人もの菩薩を連れ、音楽を奏しながらやってくるが、中、下になるにしたがい菩薩の数も少なくなり、下品下生(げぼんげしょう)では阿弥陀一尊だけが迎えにくる。この九通り（九品(くほん)）は、それぞれ異なる印で表される。

　その阿弥陀の世界を描いたのが阿弥陀浄土図で、8世紀初頭と思われる法隆寺壁画にもみることができる。その後9世紀～10世紀に天台宗を中心に阿弥陀信仰が高まり、平安末以後は阿弥陀一尊を信仰する浄土宗、浄土真宗が盛行する。

　阿弥陀の手印には、弥陀の定印(じょういん)（禅定印。釈迦のとはやや異なる。上品の三印がこれに当たる）、釈迦と同じ説法印（中品の三印）、来迎の際の来迎印（下品の三印）がある。

　阿弥陀像は釈迦像とまったく同じであるが、異例として五劫思惟(ごこうしゆい)阿弥陀像は、衆生を救うため長い間思索・修行を続けたので髪が伸び、頭部の螺髪が大きく張っている。天台宗の常行三昧(じょうぎょうさんまい)堂の本尊の阿弥陀像は宝冠を戴き髷(いただきまげ)を結い、衣の襟を頸(くび)まで詰めている。真言(しんごん)宗系の紅頗梨(ぐはり)阿弥陀像も宝冠と髷をつけ、朱色の衣を着た姿である。

［佐藤昭夫］

薬師如来

薬師如来は薬師(くすし)、つまり医薬に関する仏で、人間の心と身体の医者といえよう。仏教本来の悟りからは外れた現世利益(げんぜりやく)的な仏であるが、それだけに多くの信仰を集めている。薬師は東方浄瑠璃(じょうるり)世界の主で、そこにはつねに妙(たえ)なる音楽が流れている。音曲(おんぎょく)の浄瑠璃の語源もここにある。この仏は如来のうちでただ一例、手に持物(じもつ)（薬壺）を持つ。普通は左手だが、右手に持つものもあり、奈良・平安期の古い像では薬壺を持たないものもある。三尊形式では日光(にっこう)・月光(がっこう)の両菩薩を左右に配するほか、十二神将という武装神を守護神として配することがある。

［佐藤昭夫］

弥勒如来

弥勒は半跏(はんか)思惟の菩薩としてつくられることが多いが、如来形で表されることもある。釈迦の滅後56億7000万年（または76億5000万年）後にこの世に降(くだ)り、釈迦の救いに浴さなかった人々を救ってくれる仏で、その際には釈迦と同じ如来の姿となるが、それまでは兜率天(とそつてん)で、いかに人を救うかを考えている。これが弥勒菩薩半跏思惟像である。この姿はインドや中国では太子（釈迦）思惟像とされたが、朝鮮に入って新羅(しらぎ)や百済(くだら)で弥勒信仰が高まり、弥勒思惟像として日本へ伝わった。わが国の古代の弥勒像はほとんどが菩薩半跏像であるが、鎌倉時代に入ると如来像として信仰されることが多くなる。これは一日も早い弥勒の下生を待ち望む人々の願望の結果といえよう。弥勒の手印には特定のものはなく、釈迦と同じ施与（施無畏与願）印か、降魔印または他の印をとることもある。

［佐藤昭夫］

盧遮那仏

前記の仏たちののちに考え出された仏で、この世に釈迦が出現したように、他の世界でも釈迦が現れてその世界の人々を救う。その世界は無数にあり、釈迦もまた無数である。これら多くの釈迦とその世界を統合するのが盧遮（舎）那仏だとされる。東大寺の盧舎那仏（大仏）はよくそれを示しており、蓮華(れんげ)座の蓮弁は千葉あり、一葉が一つの世界で、それぞれに釈迦がいる。それをつかさどるのが大仏である。これは『華厳(けごん)経』や『梵網(ぼんもう)経』に説かれている仏教における壮大な宇宙観を示している。

［佐藤昭夫］

大日如来

こうした盧遮那仏に対する考え方をそのまま密教のうえに移したのが大日如来で、曼荼羅(まんだら)の主尊であり、いわば宇宙の中心となる仏格である。別名摩訶毘盧遮那(まかびるしゃな)如来といい、「摩訶」とは大という意味で、密教における盧遮那仏ともいえる。

　大日如来の姿・形は普通の如来と異なり、頭上に宝冠、胸や手足に豪華な飾りをつけ、後述する菩薩とまったく同じ姿である。大日如来が普通の如来とは違った如来、つまりキング・オブ・キングズの意味もあるようだが、その起源からはもうすこしむずかしい理由があると思われる。

　密教の宇宙観を図化した曼荼羅に「金剛界(こんごうかい)曼荼羅」と「胎蔵界(たいぞうかい)曼荼羅」の2種があり、もともと前者は『金剛頂経(こんごうちょうぎょう)』、後者は『大日経』という異なった典拠によって成立しているが、この二つは表と裏、陰と陽、因と果という二つの対立概念を示しており、それぞれの中心に大日如来が存在する。金剛界の大日如来は智拳(ちけん)印を結び、これは行動の直前の姿である。胎蔵界の大日如来像は、膝(ひざ)の上で法界定印という坐禅の形をとる。

［佐藤昭夫］

菩薩

菩薩は菩提薩埵(ぼだいさった)bodhisattvaの略で、如来となるために「道を求め、修行している者」の意。如来を中心の仏とすればそれを助ける者、如来が教理を説く者とすればその実践面を担当するのが菩薩である。いわば次の時代に如来となるべき者と考えてよいだろう。

　菩薩は釈迦が出家する以前の王子の姿によっている。釈迦は成道して如来になったが、それ以前は菩薩であったとされるからである。菩薩の頭部は螺髪ではなく、普通の髪で髷(まげ)（宝髻(ほうけい)）を結い、余った髪を肩に垂らしている（垂髪(すいはつ)）。宝冠のほかに首飾り（胸飾(きょうしょく)）をつけ、それには房が垂れており、これを瓔珞(ようらく)という。上半身はほとんど裸形で、左肩から右脇腹(わきばら)にかけて条帛(じょうはく)、肩から両腕を通して両裾(すそ)へ天衣(てんね)という帯状の布帛(ふはく)をつける。腰には裳(も)というスカートのようなものをはく。これはインドの貴人の姿である。またこの菩薩に属するものに地蔵があるが、これは比丘形（僧形）で表される。

　菩薩は独尊としても礼拝されるが、如来を中心に両脇に侍して安置されることも多い。中央にあるものを中尊、それに侍するものを脇侍(わきじ／きょうじ)といい、普通は三尊一組のものが多く、如来と菩薩の組合せは、例外もあるがほぼ一定している。中尊の名が不明でも脇侍像によって推定することができる。その代表的な組合せは次のとおりである。

　釈迦如来・普賢(ふげん)菩薩、文殊(もんじゅ)菩薩
　阿弥陀如来・観音菩薩、勢至菩薩
　薬師如来・日光菩薩、月光菩薩
　弥勒仏・法音輪(ほうおんりん)菩薩、大妙相(だいみょうそう)菩薩
　盧遮那仏・観音菩薩、虚空蔵(こくうぞう)菩薩
［佐藤昭夫］

観音菩薩

正しくは観世音(かんぜおん)菩薩といい、菩薩のなかでもっとも信仰を集めている。観音像は宝冠や額(ひたい)の上に標識として小さな阿弥陀像をつけ、蓮華を持つことが多い。観音にも多くの種類があるが、その根本となるのが聖(しょう)（正）観音で、奈良時代以前は頭部1、手足2本ずつの普通の人間の姿であったが、衆生を救うために多くの能力や力を必要とするとされ、密教のなかから多面多臂(ためんたひ)の像が考え出された。その代表的な例が千手(せんじゅ)観音や十一面観音である。こうした多面多臂の観音はすでに奈良時代からつくられ始めており、法隆寺の壁画にも十一面観音が描かれている。これらは聖観音が変化した形というので変化(へんげ)観音とよばれ、33あるいは108種類もあるという。

　千手観音はまさにその能力の直接的な表現で、頭上に10ないし11の菩薩頭部をつけ、1000本の手をもち、その一つ一つに眼(め)があり、千手千眼(げん)観音ともいう。1000本の手をつけるのは彫刻の造形バランス上むずかしいので、省略して42本として表現することが多い。合掌する手は観音本来のもので、その他の40本の1本ずつが25本分に相当する。唐招提寺(とうしょうだいじ)金堂の千手観音像は実際に1000本の手をつけた例で、九百数十本が現存する。千手観音には眷属(けんぞく)として二十八部衆、風神・雷神を付属することが多い。

　千手観音と同様に頭上に菩薩頭部をつけているのが十一面観音である。普通、髻(もとどり)の上部に如来頭部を配し、髻の周囲に菩薩頭部を置く。頭上に10面をつけ、本当の顔（本面(ほんめん)）とともに11と数えるものと、頭上だけに11面を配するものとがある。このほか、二十五面観音の例や、法隆寺の唐伝来の九面観音もある。また滋賀・渡岸寺(どうがんじ)像のように本面脇に1面ずつ、頭上に8面の変則的な例もある。

　如意輪(にょいりん)観音は、平安期以後、密教とくに真言宗で重要な像とされ、6本の手があり、その1本に如意宝珠(にょいほうじゅ)を、別の手に法輪(ほうりん)を捧(ささ)げ、右の脚を立て膝(ひざ)にした坐像で表現される。如意宝珠も法輪も仏教のシンボルで、法輪は投げて使う武器で、一つの力の表現である。奈良時代には二臂半跏坐の像もつくられた。

　不空羂索(ふくうけんじゃく)観音は、手に羂索という一種の綱を持ち、この綱で苦界に沈む多くの人々を救う。その姿は経典によって異なるが、一般的には三眼六臂の像である。肩に鹿皮(しかがわ)をまとっていることから春日(かすが)の鹿になぞらえ、春日神社の本地仏（日本の神はインドの仏の変化だとする説で、そのもとになった仏をいう）が不空羂索観音だとされ、藤原一族の守護仏として尊崇された。

　馬頭(ばとう)観音は、後世、馬の安全祈願や馬の供養のために祀(まつ)られるが、もともとは馬のような強大な力を発揮する菩薩である。ヒンドゥー教の最高神ビシュヌの馬に化身する説話などが仏教にも取り入れられたものであろう。この観音が、慈悲を主張する菩薩のうちただ一つだけ忿怒(ふんぬ)の形相をしているのは、もともと明王像として成立したのが、観音に転化したためである。

［佐藤昭夫］

勢至菩薩

観音と同じく阿弥陀の脇侍として、観音が向かって右（左脇）にいるのに対し、向かって左（右脇）に控える。姿形は観音に似ているが、観音が頭上に小さな阿弥陀像（化仏(けぶつ)）をつけるのに対し、勢至菩薩は水瓶(すいびょう)をつけていることが多い。勢至は観音と違って独尊で信仰されることはきわめてまれである。

［佐藤昭夫］

普賢・文殊菩薩

この2菩薩は釈迦如来の脇侍として、蓮華座上に立ったり座ったりしている。普賢は白象に乗り、文殊は獅子(しし)の上にいることも多い。『法華経(ほけきょう)』によれば、普賢菩薩は六牙の白象に乗って東方からきたり、法華経信者を守護するといわれる。その法華経は女人往生を説くので、普賢菩薩は女性のための仏として独尊でも信仰された。十羅刹女(らせつじょ)という10人の女神を従えたものもある。普賢菩薩の変化として二臂あるいは二十臂で、一身三頭の象に乗る普賢延命菩薩があるが、その下には輪宝があり、これを500頭の象が支えている。

　文殊菩薩は俗に智慧(ちえ)の文殊といわれ、理性をつかさどる。文殊像は、獅子に乗り4人の従者を従え、海を渡ってくるという渡海文殊像が多い。また文殊の穢(けが)れのない理性を象徴して童子の姿、すなわち稚児(ちご)文殊としてつくられることも多く、さらに聖僧(しょうそう)文殊といって老僧の姿でもつくられる。文殊像は頭の髻の数によって一髻(けい)、五髻、六髻、八髻文殊がある。持物は剣と経巻を納めた箱（梵篋(ぼんきょう)）で、梵篋を蓮(はす)の花の上にのせて持ったり、剣のかわりに金剛杵(こんごうしょ)という武器を持つこともある。いずれも智慧のシンボルである。

［佐藤昭夫］

日光・月光菩薩

この二尊は薬師如来の脇侍で独尊は少ない。他の菩薩との区別はむずかしいが、蓮華を持ち、花の上に日輪(にちりん)・月輪(がちりん)を置くこともあるが、かならずとはいえない。

［佐藤昭夫］

弥勒菩薩

菩薩形で表された弥勒像で、半跏思惟像が多いが、普通の菩薩坐像の形をとり、手に弥勒の象徴とされる塔をのせている例もある。

［佐藤昭夫］

地蔵菩薩

僧形で袈裟(けさ)を着けているものもある。釈迦滅後、弥勒出現までの長い末法の時期に衆生を救う役目をもつとされ、大衆の信仰を集めている。その救いは信仰を知らない子供にも及ぶので、子供の守護仏でもある。さらに地獄や六道(ろくどう)という恐ろしい世界から人々を救うのが六道地蔵、六地蔵で、これが転化して道案内、道しるべとしての辻(つじ)の地蔵となる。鎌倉時代以後は閻魔(えんま)王と同体とされ、閻魔十王といっしょに造像されることが多い。その形は平安時代までは左手に宝珠、右手は下げて掌を見せる像がほとんどだが、鎌倉以後になると右手に錫杖(しゃくじょう)を持った像が多くなる。珍しい例だが、奈良・長谷寺(はせでら)の十一面観音像は地蔵との合体像といわれ、右手に錫杖を持つ。

［佐藤昭夫］

虚空蔵菩薩

名のとおり虚空の神格化で、姿や持物は一定しない。空に対する信仰として、北斗星の神格化である妙見(みょうけん)菩薩がある。

［佐藤昭夫］

明王

明王像はインド古来のバラモン教の神々を吸収したもので、のちに密教の重要な像となった。非常に強い力をもち、忿怒(ふんぬ)の形相で悪を打ち砕く仏の使者である。如来はあるときは優しい菩薩として衆生を済度し、ある場合は明王のように恐ろしい姿で威力によって仏法に導くという。多面多臂、多眼多脚の怪奇な姿の像がほとんどである。

［佐藤昭夫］

不動明王

不動明王のみ人間と同じ姿で、右手に倶利迦羅剣(くりからけん)を持ち、左手に羂索を握る。背中には火焔(かえん)をかたどった光背を負い、岩石上か、岩を象徴化した瑟々(しつしつ)座にのる。平安初期には坐像が多いが、中期ごろから立像もつくられている。上半身裸形、腰に布を巻くだけの姿で、インドの奴婢(ぬひ)、奴隷の姿からきている。

［佐藤昭夫］

降三世明王

三面八臂、足下に男女の像を踏む。これはヒンドゥー教のシバ神（大自在天(だいじざいてん)）とその妻烏摩(うま)で悪の象徴である。不動明王はこのシバ神が仏教に取り入れられたものだが、ここではシバ神は逆に征服された形になっており、これは、これらの神格が仏教に取り入れられた時期や思想の相違による。8本の手のうち6本は弓、矢、剣などの武器を持ち、他の2本は胸前で小指を絡ませる合掌印を結んでいる。

［佐藤昭夫］

軍荼利明王

三眼八臂、すさまじい形相で、両腕、両脚に蛇を巻き付けている。

［佐藤昭夫］

大威徳明王

牛に乗り、六足尊(そくそん)といわれるように、六面、六臂、六脚の像。通常は座した牛の上に座るが、疾駆する牛の上に片脚で踊るように立つ像もある。

［佐藤昭夫］

金剛夜叉明王

三面六臂で、正面の顔は五眼である。

　以上の五体は不動明王を中心に五大明王（五大尊）ともいわれ、護国の尊像でかつ個人の身を護(まも)り、悪魔を退散させる現世利益の神として広く浸透した。平安・鎌倉期にはお産のときに五大明王に加持祈祷(かじきとう)して安産を祈った。

［佐藤昭夫］

愛染明王

その名や弓矢を持つ姿から西欧のキューピッドと同じ役柄と誤解されがちだが、実は逆で、修行の妨げとなる愛欲を抑えて、浄菩提心、つまり清く正しい心に変えさせる力をもつ。身色も円光背も真紅、頭上に獅子冠を戴き、六臂である。平安中期から信仰が高まったが、遺品は鎌倉以後に限られる。

［佐藤昭夫］

孔雀明王

明王のうちではもっとも早く成立し、日本でも奈良時代に造像された。悪虫、毒蛇を食う孔雀の神格化で、その力が悪魔降伏(ごうぶく)に役だつと考えられた。羽根を広げた孔雀の座に座す姿で、優しく、菩薩のような姿は明王像としては珍しい。

［佐藤昭夫］

天部・神将

天部・神将像は仏教成立以前からあったインドの他宗教の神々を吸収したもので、自然神が多い。帝釈天(たいしゃくてん)（雷神インドラ）、梵天(ぼんてん)（宇宙最高原理をつかさどる神ブラフマー）、吉祥(きちじょう)天（福徳の女神）、弁才天（海の神で音楽・福徳の女神）などがあり、四天王、十二神将もこれに属する守護善神である。天部像には俗形、武装、冠や冑(かぶと)を戴くものなど、種類が多く、服装・姿態もまちまちで、仏像のうち女性像があるのはこの天部像だけである。神将像は多く武装で忿怒像が多い。このほか鬼神像（天竜八部衆(てんりゅうはちぶしゅう)など）、力士形（金剛力士など）、童子形（不動明王に従う制吒迦(せいたか)童子・矜羯羅(こんがら)童子など）もこれに含まれる。

［佐藤昭夫］

比丘

比丘は頭を丸めた僧侶(そうりょ)の姿で、祖師、高僧像がほとんどだが、地蔵菩薩のように形のうえではこれに属するものもある。そのほか垂迹(すいじゃく)像といい、修験道(しゅげんどう)の尊像である蔵王権現(ざおうごんげん)とか僧形八幡(はちまん)神像のように、神仏混淆(こんこう)思想から生まれた像もある。

［佐藤昭夫］

姿勢と寸法による分類

仏像をその姿勢から大別すると、立像(りゅうぞう)、坐(ざ)像、臥(が)像がある。立像には直立像のほか、遊行(ゆぎょう)像（片脚を一歩前に出し歩行の形をとる）、蹴立(しゅうりつ)像（邪立(じゃりつ)像ともいい、一方の脚を蹴上(けあ)げた形で、明王像、天部像に多い）があり、坐像では結跏趺坐(けっかふざ)像（脚をあぐらのように組んだ形）がもっとも多く、左脚を上に組むのが降魔(ごうま)坐、右脚を上にしたのを吉祥坐という。半跏坐は弥勒菩薩などに多く、普通、左脚を踏み下げている。倚(い)像は腰掛けて両脚を下ろした形で、インド、中国には多いが、日本の仏像には少ない。下げた脚を交差したのを交脚倚像という。臥像は横臥した姿の像で、涅槃(ねはん)像に限られる。

　経典によると仏の背の高さは一丈六尺（約4.8メートル）で、この寸法を基本とし、これを丈六(じょうろく)像といい、立像ではそのまま一丈六尺あり、坐像では半分の八尺の像を、立てば一丈六尺あるということから丈六像という。この丈六を何倍かにするとか、何分の1かにした寸法で像がつくられる。たとえば半丈六像といえば、立像八尺、坐像四尺の像をいう。このほか人間の等身に基準をとった立像五尺（約1.5メートル）、坐像二尺五寸（約76センチメートル）があり、特殊なものに約一尺二寸～一尺八寸（約36～54センチメートル）の一磔手半(ちゃくしゅはん)像（磔とは手首から肘(ひじ)までの寸法）、約三寸五分（約10.6センチメートル）の五指量(しりょう)像などがある。

［佐藤昭夫］

手印

仏教とくに密教では多くの像があり、それに応じて手印が規定されている。初めはさほど厳格ではなかったが、密教がヒンドゥー教の行事を取り入れて印契を重視するようになってから、細かく規定された。密教では数百の手印が記録されており、地域的にもインド、チベット、中国などで異なった印相が行われている。手印のおもなものは次のとおりである。

(1)阿弥陀の定印(じょういん)　阿弥陀如来の禅定印ともいう。右手を左手に重ね、人差し指を立て、親指をその指頭につける形。

(2)説法印（転法輪印）　法輪とは真理を意味し、これを転ずるというのは説法をすることである。

(3)来迎印（安慰印）　来迎の阿弥陀の印。左右逆の場合もある。

(4)阿弥陀の九品(くほん)印　人は生前の行いにより極楽往生の仕方に九通りあり、阿弥陀の迎え方も異なり、印の結び方にも前記(1)～(3)を基本とした九種がある。これが九品印である。

(5)施無畏(せむい)印　一切衆生(いっさいしゅじょう)のさまざまな恐怖をとどめ、そこから救済するという意味の印で、普通、与願印と組み合わせて用いられる。

(6)与願印　仏が大衆の求めるものを願によって施し与うることを表したもの。施無畏印とともに施願印、施与印という。

(7)法界定印（禅定印）　坐禅の際に結ぶ印。釈迦如来や胎蔵界大日如来に多い。阿弥陀の定印の指を立てない形。

(8)智拳(ちけん)印　金剛界大日如来の印。この印を結ぶと現世の煩悩(ぼんのう)を消して仏智に入ることができるとされる。

(9)合掌印　各種の合掌によってつくられるもので、金剛合掌、堅実合掌、叉手(しゃしゅ)合掌、帰命(きみょう)合掌などがある。

(10)降魔(ごうま)印（指地(しじ)印、触地(しょくち)印）　釈迦八相の一つである降魔、つまり釈迦が菩提樹下で悟りを開こうとしたとき、これを妨げようとした欲界の六天を降伏させたときの印で、日本では単独の像ではほとんどつくられていない。

［佐藤昭夫］

契印

手印と同様に持物にもそれぞれに意味があり、たとえば聖観音菩薩の蓮華は「大悲応物、不染不苦」を意味し、大慈悲の象徴である。また文殊菩薩は剣によってよく衆生の煩悩を取り除き、経巻は計り知れない智慧を意味している。そのほかおもなものをあげると、十一面観音の水瓶と蓮華、地蔵菩薩の宝珠と錫杖、鬼子母神(きしもじん)の吉祥果、火天の仙杖、千手観音の宮殿や武器、不動明王の剣と羂索、愛染明王の弓箭(きゅうせん)、多聞(たもん)天（毘沙門(びしゃもん)天）の宝塔など40種以上で、各尊によって持物が異なるので、それによって像が識別できる。

［佐藤昭夫］

仏像の制作

材料と技法

日本では大部分が木造だが、金属、乾漆(かんしつ)、塑土(そど)、石、まれには紙も用いられる。

［佐藤昭夫］

木造

ヒノキが圧倒的に多く、他の材は時代・地域によって使用の仕方に厚薄がある。飛鳥(あすか)・白鳳(はくほう)の7世紀にはクスノキが多い。天平(てんぴょう)の8世紀には乾漆、塑土が多く用いられ、木彫は少ないが、乾漆像、塑像の芯木(しんぎ)にはヒノキが用いられた。9世紀には木彫が造像の主流となり、ヒノキがおもに使われた。この時代には仏教が地方にも伝播(でんぱ)し、各地で特色ある材を用いた。関東・東北ではカツラ、ケヤキ、サクラなど、九州ではクスノキ、カヤが多い。珍しい材としては、南アジア産の香木、白檀(びゃくだん)や栴檀(せんだん)を用いた檀像がある。

　木彫像には像の体躯(たいく)の中心部を1本の木でつくりあげた一木造(いちぼくづくり)と、2個以上の材をあわせてつくった寄木(よせぎ)造とがある。一木造でも、像の中心となる頭部・胴部以外の突出部、立像(りゅうぞう)なら腕、坐(ざ)像で腕や膝(ひざ)などは別の材を継ぐ。背部から内刳(うちぐり)といって像内を刳(く)り取り、背板という蓋板(ふたいた)を別につくって当てる。これは、木材の中心部をとらずに彫刻すると、芯部と表面との乾燥度の相違で干割(ひわ)れができ、像をだいなしにするからで、それを防ぎ、像の重量を軽減するためである。立像は背面から、坐像は背面や像底から刳るが、背面から刳る内刳をとくに背刳(せぐり)という。一木造は飛鳥期から平安期のなかばにかけて多くつくられた。

　寄木造は頭や体部などの躯幹部を前後・左右2個以上の材を規則正しく継ぎ合わせて構成したもので、その先駆は1006年（寛弘3）作と推定される京都・同聚院の不動明王像である。これは躯幹を前後左右から箱のように材を組み合わせ、背面材はさらに左右に分かれ、内部には大きく内刳が施されている。寄木造は12世紀にさらに進んで、頭部と体部を別材でつくり、他は多くの材を組み合わせていっそう便化された。こうして、大像でも一木造のような巨材を必要とせず、深い刳りを入れることで重量を軽減でき、分業制作も可能になって、平安後期のおびただしい造像の注文にも応じられるようになった。このような寄木造の材の寄せ方の規則を木寄(きよせ)法あるいは寄木法とよんでいる。

　木彫のもう一つの技法に割矧(わりは)ぎがある。一木造を制作する工程の途中で、像を前後または左右に鑿(のみ)で割り離し、内部に大きく刳りを施したうえでふたたびあわせて仕上げる。さらに頭部と体部とを離すのを割首とよぶ。割矧ぎは一木造と寄木造の中間的技法である。一木造の量感・質感をとどめたまま深い内刳ができるため、技術者を大量に動員できない地方の仏師にとっては便利な方法で、寄木造が盛んになった平安後期以後も長く利用された。

　また12世紀なかばに、この寄木造の内刳を利用して、彫像の眼(め)に水晶を裏から当て、人間の眼のような輝きをもたせる玉眼(ぎょくがん)が考案された。

　木彫像の仕上げには漆箔(しっぱく)、彩色、切金(きりかね)などの方法が用いられる。彫刻を終わった像の矧目(はぎめ)は細く溝を彫り、「こくそ漆(うるし)」（漆に木粉や抹香(まっこう)を混ぜたもの）を詰めて矧目を目だたなくし、上から麻布を漆ではり、砥の粉(とのこ)を混ぜた下地漆で布目をつぶし、砥石で研(と)ぎ上げたあと漆を何回か塗り、さらに漆で金箔をはるのが漆箔像である。彩色の場合には、下地に白土や胡粉(ごふん)を塗り、その上から彩色したり、金泥(きんでい)を全身に塗る。檀像やその風をまねた檀像様彫刻、鑿目(のみめ)を強調した鉈彫(なたぼ)り、立木仏(たちきぶつ)などでは、瞳(ひとみ)や眉(まゆ)、ひげに墨を、唇に朱をさし、あとは木肌のままとする。

　また彩色の上に切金（截金）といって金箔の細線で文様を描き出す技法があり、金泥彩の上に切金を施すのは鎌倉初期の名工快慶が得意とした。盛り上げ彩色は仏像の衣に刺しゅうのような文様をつける技法で、胡粉で文様を盛り上げる。これには鎌倉地方で行われたような、粘土に膠(にかわ)を加えたものを型に入れ、花や葉、法輪などの文様をつくり、乾かないうちに仏像の衣の部分に漆で貼(は)り付ける土文(どもん)という技法もあり、鎌倉時代後半から南北朝・室町時代の像にその例がみられる。

［佐藤昭夫］

金属造

金、銀、銅、鉄を主とし、まれに真鍮(しんちゅう)像もある。技法的には鋳物(いもの)、打物(うちもの)（鍛造）、彫金がある。金仏は奈良時代には正倉院文書にみられ、藤原時代にもつくられた記録はあるが、現存するものはごく少ない。銀製の像は現存遺品では興福寺東金堂から発見された等身像と思われる仏像の腕、東大寺三月堂不空羂索観音(ふくうけんじゃくかんのん)像の宝冠の化仏(けぶつ)など奈良時代のものや、滋賀・浄厳(じょうごん)院の阿弥陀如来(あみだにょらい)像（鎌倉時代）などだが、藤原時代にはその色調が珍重され、記録では銀仏のほうが金銅(こんどう)仏より制作の記事が多い。

　銅製鋳物の像は普通、金鍍金(めっき)を施すので、金銅仏という。現在のブロンズに近い錫(すず)、鉛などとの合金で、その成分は一定しない。金銅仏の鋳造方法はおよそ二つに大別される。一つは蝋(ろう)型鋳物で、飛鳥・奈良時代の金銅仏はほとんどこれである。もう一つは木や土の原型から外型（雌型）をとる割込(わりこめ)型である。像内に空洞をとる場合は一回り小さい中型を入れ、両者の間に溶銅を流し込む。こうしてつくられた像は、鋳損じた部分を補修し、表面をきれいに鏨(たがね)で削り、磨き上げて水銀鍍金（アマルガムめっき）を施し、さらに髪、眉目、唇、衣などに彩色をする。ほかに原型の上に銅板を置いて槌(つち)で打ち出した押出仏(おしだしぶつ)が7、8世紀に流行し、鉄製鋳造の鉄仏も鎌倉時代以後の東日本に多い。

［佐藤昭夫］

乾漆造

漆を材料とした東洋独特のもので、日本には7世紀ごろ中国から技法が輸入された。乾漆像にも2種あり、一つは脱活(だっかつ)乾漆（脱乾漆）で、粘土で像のだいたいの形をつくり、その上に麻布を等身像で7、8枚漆で貼り重ね、形のできたところで内部の土を掻(か)き出し、空洞に木で骨組をつくり、表面にこくそ漆(うるし)を盛り上げ、漆箔や彩色をする。東大寺三月堂不空羂索観音像、興福寺の八部衆像や十大弟子像はこれである。他の一つは木心(もくしん)乾漆といい、木でだいたいの形をつくり、こくそ漆を盛り、細部の表現をする。なかには細部まで木で仕上げ、ごく薄くこくそ漆をかけた像もある。材料の可塑性が奈良時代の写実的作風と合致して流行したが、手間がかかり値段も高いのでしだいに衰えた。

［佐藤昭夫］

塑造

塑とは粘土のことで、土でつくった彫像の意で、奈良時代に流行した。広義には現在の石膏(せっこう)像も塑像の一種である。東洋では古くから用いられ、捻(ねん)、摂(しょう)、塑(そ)、素(そ)、泥(でい)などとよばれ、焼成しない土製像をさす。源流は西域(せいいき)にあるといわれ、敦煌(とんこう)や麦積山(ばくせきざん)の石窟(せっくつ)寺院に多くの遺品がある。日本には7世紀ごろ伝わり、奈良當麻寺(たいまでら)弥勒(みろく)如来坐像が完形のものの最古の例である。技法は芯木に藁(わら)や縄を巻き、粘土をすこしずつつけては乾燥させる。表面にいくにつれて土は細かいものを用い、粘着力を増すために膠(にかわ)や苆(すさ)を混ぜる。細部は麻布を巻いた針金を芯とすることもある。仕上げには彩色や漆箔をする。写実的表現に適するというので奈良時代には盛んにつくられ、法隆寺五重塔の塑像群、東大寺法華(ほっけ)堂の日光(にっこう)・月光(がっこう)両菩薩(ぼさつ)像と執金剛神(しっこんごうしん)像、戒壇院四天王像などの名作を残したが、他の時代にはほとんどなく、わずかに鎌倉時代の肖像彫刻に二、三の例があるにすぎない。こうした乾漆像や塑像には、後世の玉眼のように眼(め)に黒曜石やガラス玉をはめた例もある。

［佐藤昭夫］

石造

東洋諸地域にみられ、石窟内の壁面に彫られたものや岩壁を利用した磨崖仏(まがいぶつ)（摩崖仏）をはじめ、独立した石塊に丸彫り・浮彫りした像があるが、インドや中国に比べると、日本では彫刻に適する石材が乏しく、数も少ない。古代の石仏の多くは凝灰岩で、石肌に独特の美しさがあるが、耐久性には欠ける。最古の遺品に、7世紀後半の作と思われる、表情の愛らしい奈良・石位(いしい)寺の三尊像がある。8世紀では良弁(ろうべん)作といわれる奈良・頭塔(ずとう)石仏群が奈良風の典麗な浮彫りとして有名。平安時代になると北九州、北陸、関東などで磨崖仏がつくられた。とくに北九州一帯は阿蘇(あそ)の溶岩によって日本最大の石仏の宝庫となっている。なかでも大分県の臼杵(うすき)石仏は優秀な作例である。栃木県大谷(おおや)の石仏群は、凝灰岩の大谷石に浮彫りし、漆食(しっくい)で表面を仕上げたものである。鎌倉時代には、仏教の大衆化によって石仏造立は盛んになるが規模も小さく、丸彫り像が多くなる。鎌倉時代以後も日本全国にみられ、花崗(かこう)岩、安山岩、凝灰岩、砂岩などさまざまな石材を使用しているが、芸術的に目だつ作品は少ない。

［佐藤昭夫］

造仏の順序

仏像制作の順序は、木彫を例にとると次のとおりである。まず造像の願をたてた発願者は僧侶(そうりょ)と相談して仏師を決定する。仏師と経済的・技術的な打合せをするのを造仏支度(したく)という。次に材料を整えるが、木彫の材を御衣木(みそぎ)といい、高僧によって材や工具を清める御衣木加持(みそぎかじ)を行う。仏師が御衣木に最初の斧(おの)を下ろす儀式を斧始(おのはじめ)といい、材は仏師の仕事場である仏所(ぶっしょ)に運ばれて工事が開始される。その間、発願者ら関係者はしばしば検分といって立会い検査をする。藤原時代の貴族は感覚も優れていたから口やかましく欠点を指摘したという。できあがった像は仏所から寺へ運ばれ、予定の堂内の壇上に据えられる。これを奉渡、奉居という。そして荘厳(しょうごん)が施され、吉日を選んで像の眼に瞳をかき入れる開眼(かいげん)供養が行われる。わが国最大の開眼供養は752年（天平勝宝4）4月の東大寺金堂盧舎那(るしゃな)仏（大仏）の開眼会(え)で、参集の供養僧一万といわれる。

　造仏あるいは修理の際、像身や付属物の一部に造立や修理の次第、仏師や発願者名、年紀などを記したものを造像銘といい、造像の直接的資料として重要である。その形式はさまざまで、造像経過や経文などを記したものもあれば、ごく簡単な年紀のみの場合もある。記入の場所は、金属像や石像では仏身の背面や光背(こうはい)裏、台座などの外面に陰刻または陽刻する。木彫では胎内、台座内部、蓮弁(れんべん)裏、光背裏、足枘(ほぞ)などに墨書または朱書する。また仏像の胎内には小仏像（胎内仏）、経巻、銘札をはじめ故人の遺品など、さらに五穀や鏡などさまざまな納入品を納める場合がある。

　なお、仏像や仏堂を装飾することを荘厳といい、その用具を荘厳具という。これには直接仏体につける身(しん)荘厳と、仏体から離れた荘厳がある。また仏の身体から発する光を形象化したのが光背で、完備した仏像にはかならず光背が付属する。光背は厳密には荘厳具ではないが、造像法からは荘厳具に含めて考えられる。

［佐藤昭夫］

『望月信成・佐和隆研他著『定本仏像――心とかたち』（1971・日本放送出版協会）』▽『南日義妙著『仏像をたずねて――日本仏像百科事典』（1972・文進堂）』▽『久野健編『仏像事典』（1975・東京堂出版）』▽『佐藤昭夫著『仏像をみる人のために』（1979・玉川大学出版部）』▽『町田甲一著『仏像――その意味と歴史と美しさについて』（1979・実業之日本社）』▽『杉山二郎著『仏像』（1984・柏書房）』▽『久野健編『仏像集成3　日本の仏像』（1985・学生社）』▽『久野健編『東洋仏像名宝辞典』（1986・東京堂出版）』

[参照項目] | 一木造 | 押出し仏 | 乾漆像 | ガンダーラ美術 | 玉眼 | 木寄法 | 切金 | 銀仏 | 光背 | 金銅仏 | 三尊像 | 荘厳具 | 丈六像 | 石仏 | 造像銘 | 塑像 | 胎内仏 | 立木仏 | 檀像 | 鉄仏 | 天平彫刻 | 土文 | 鉈彫り | 磨崖仏 | 寄木造

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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Origin and development

Types and Characteristics of Buddhist Statues

Tathagata

Shaka Nyorai

Amitabha Buddha

Medicine Buddha

Maitreya Buddha

Vairocana Buddha

Vairocana

Bodhisattva

Kannon Bodhisattva

Bodhisattva Seishi

Samantabhadra and Manjusri

Nikko and Gekko Bodhisattva

Maitreya Bodhisattva

Jizo Bodhisattva

Kokuzo Bodhisattva

Myo-o

Acala

King Gosanze

King Gundari

King Daiitoku

Vajrayana

Aizen Myoo

Peacock King

Heavenly Beings and Divine Generals

Bhikkhu

Classification by posture and size

Hand stamp

Contract

Creating Buddha statues

Materials and Techniques

wooden

Metal construction

Dried lacquer

Plastic construction

Stone construction

Order of Buddha-building

起源と展開

仏像の種類と特徴

如来

釈迦如来

阿弥陀如来

薬師如来

弥勒如来

盧遮那仏

大日如来

菩薩

観音菩薩

勢至菩薩

普賢・文殊菩薩

日光・月光菩薩

弥勒菩薩

地蔵菩薩

虚空蔵菩薩

明王

不動明王

降三世明王

軍荼利明王

大威徳明王

金剛夜叉明王

愛染明王

孔雀明王

天部・神将

比丘

姿勢と寸法による分類

手印

契印

仏像の制作

材料と技法

木造

金属造

乾漆造

塑造

石造

造仏の順序

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