A peninsula that juts out into the eastern Mediterranean Sea in southeastern Europe. It is surrounded from the east by the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the Adriatic Sea. The Danube River and the Sava River that joins it form the base of the peninsula. There are few plains, and it is composed of many folded mountains and rivers that form valleys. However, these did not prevent people from moving to the peninsula. The Balkan Peninsula is located at the junction of Europe and Asia, and is a transportation hub, so it was important not only for commercial activities but also for military purposes, and many human groups have moved in and out of it since ancient times. It is smaller than the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), and has an area twice that of the Italian peninsula, about 1,300 km from east to west and about 1,000 km from north to south, with an area of about 500,000 square kilometers. The name of the peninsula comes from the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina) that run east to west through central Bulgaria, but the word "Balkan" means "mountain range" in Ottoman (Turkish). "Balkan" began to be used as the name of the peninsula in the early 19th century, and the name became widespread and established from the end of the 19th century to the Balkan Wars and World War I. During this process, "Balkan" was recognized not only as a geographical concept, but also as a historical and political concept, and not only Albania and Bulgaria, whose territories are limited to the peninsula as mentioned above, but also the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, and Turkey, whose territories extend outside the peninsula, came to be considered Balkan countries. However, there has always been a gap between geographical and political concepts, and even today it is difficult to say that the historical and political concepts have been established. For example, the Republic of Turkey has part of its territory on the Balkan Peninsula, but it is difficult to consider Turkey as a Balkan country today. On the other hand, it is appropriate to include Moldova, a former constituent republic of the Soviet Union, in the Balkan countries because of its shared history with Romania. Furthermore, the difficulty of defining the Balkans historically and politically is due to the historical and cultural complexity of the region, but one factor can also be seen in the process of how people inside and outside the peninsula have come to perceive the Balkans. The term Balkans first took root in Western European countries during a time of war, and was perceived with negative connotations such as conflict, strife, disorder, and backwardness, so the perception of the Balkans in the Balkan countries is complex. Some countries, such as Bulgaria, recognize the Balkans not only as the name of a peninsula, but also as the name of a mountain range that has played an important role in its history, and have a positive view of it. On the other hand, in Romania, most of the country does not belong to the Balkans as a geographical concept, and since the interwar period, historians and the general public have traditionally perceived the country as part of Southeastern Europe, and have distanced themselves from the Balkans. Also, with the separation and disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, there is a growing tendency in Croatia and Slovenia to see themselves as part of Central Europe and separate themselves from the Balkans and the former Yugoslavia. Based on the geographical concept, and also taking into account historical and political concepts, the following countries can be listed as belonging to the Balkan Peninsula: Albania, Greece, the Republic of North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, and Moldova. Considering only geographical factors, the European part of Turkey would also be included. [Kimura Makoto] terrainThe country is extremely mountainous overall, with the Dinaric Alps running from north to south, bordering the Adriatic Sea on the west, and connected to the Pindus Mountains, while the southern part has a complex topography and is surrounded by the Aegean and Ionian Seas. Each mountain range is made of limestone, has developed karst topography, and forms a barrier between the coast and the inland. There are no rivers to be seen along the Adriatic coast and most of Greece, except for the Vardar River, but there are many large and small lakes and marshes. In the east, the Transylvanian Alps, which are connected to the Carpathian Mountains, the Balkan Mountains, and the Rhodope Mountains to the south run from east to west. The Danube River and its tributaries flow between these mountain ranges, which is one of the reasons for the isolation of each region. The river systems are controlled by mountain ranges and are broadly divided into three continental river systems: the long, gentle currents of the Black Sea-flowing river system (e.g. the Danube River), the short, rapid currents of the Adriatic Sea-flowing river system (e.g. the Neretva River), and the Aegean Sea-flowing river system (e.g. the Vardar River). [Mitsui Yoshio] climateThe Mediterranean climate prevails, but because of the mountainous area, the influence of the oceanic climate is almost nonexistent in the inland areas, which have a dry continental climate. The Mediterranean climate is most prominent in the southern coastal areas and the islands off the coast of Greece. The summers are hot and dry, and there is rainfall in the winter, which has influenced cultural styles such as olive cultivation and white-walled houses, which are resistant to the summer dryness. The northern limit of winter grain cultivation coincides with the northern limit of the Mediterranean climate. The narrow coast of Dalmatia facing the Adriatic Sea forms a transition zone between the Mediterranean and continental climates, and is generally warm, where oranges and olives are cultivated, but the climate changes drastically as you go north, and from autumn to winter, the famous cold wind called the bora, which blows out from the inland mountains, often causes damage to crops and people and livestock. However, the Adriatic coast, such as Rijeka, Zadar, Split, and Dubrovnik, is crowded with tourists in the summer due to its scenic beauty. The northern coast of the Aegean Sea, southern Macedonia and western Thrace have a sub-Mediterranean climate, with large differences in temperature due to the northerly winds blowing down from the valley of the Vardar River. This region is the northern limit of fruit cultivation in the Mediterranean. Most of the inland Balkans has a continental climate, with some variation due to the undulations of the mountains, but the annual precipitation is 700-1500 mm in the west and 400-700 mm in the east, and the Thrace region exposed to the northerly winds of the Russian Plain is steppe-like. [Mitsui Yoshio] Society and EconomySeveral nations have been formed in the Balkan Peninsula due to a complex mix of historical backgrounds, cultural elements such as language and religion, and the presence of ethnic minorities. After World War II, socialist governments were established in each country, and economic management was carried out based on five-year plans with the aim of industrial development, but primary industries such as agriculture still accounted for a large proportion of each country's economy, leaving them economically backward. However, after 1989, the socialist system collapsed and a market economy was introduced. In the case of the former Yugoslavia, it was a multi-ethnic nation with Serbs, Croats, etc. Due to the fact that it was under foreign rule until the beginning of the 20th century, that four languages were used - Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian - and that three religions - Orthodox, Catholic, and Islam - were practiced, and that there were ethnic minorities of Albanian and Muslim origin, the former Yugoslavia formed a federal state of six republics and two autonomous states. The government aimed for a new socialism by allowing competition between companies and a system of self-management for workers, but there were problems such as a significant economic disparity between the north and south of the country and the expansion of autonomy for ethnic minorities. Since 1991, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia (which changed its name to the Republic of North Macedonia in 2019) have gained independence one after another, and Serbia and Montenegro have formed the new Yugoslav Federation (which changed its name to "Serbia and Montenegro" as a new federal state in 2003). In 1992, Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Muslim Moslems divided the sphere of influence in Bosnia-Herzegovina into three, and began the so-called "war of ethnic cleansing" (Bosnian Civil War, Bosnian War). A compromise agreement was reached in 1995 with the Dayton Accords, but a fundamental solution has not been reached. In 2003, the new Yugoslavia became the federal state of Serbia and Montenegro, but Montenegro had long had a strong desire for independence, and in June 2006 it declared independence, becoming the independent state of the Republic of Montenegro. Following Montenegro's independence, Serbia became the independent state of the Republic of Serbia as the successor state of Serbia and Montenegro, and the federal state of Serbia and Montenegro disappeared. Thus, the six republics that once made up the former Yugoslavia - Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro - each became independent states. In the autonomous province of Kosovo in Serbia, the Kosovo problem (Kosovo conflict), in which Albanian forces seeking independence fought against the Serbian authorities, continued, and on February 17, 2008, the Kosovo parliament adopted a declaration of independence. The United States and EU countries recognized the independence, and Japan also recognized the Republic of Kosovo as a state in March of the same year. In the case of Bulgaria, 85% of the population is Bulgarian, a South Slavic race, but 9% is Turkic, as it was once under Turkish rule. In addition to Greek Orthodoxy, Islam is also practiced. Originally a backward agricultural country, industry developed during the socialist era with the implementation of five-year plans and assistance from the Soviet Union. About one-quarter of the industrial population works in the primary industry, and about two-fifths in the secondary industry. In Romania, about 90% are Romanians of Latin descent, with the rest being Hungarians and Roma. After the collapse of the socialist system in 1989, the country moved to a market economy, but the economy has not been doing well. Moldova is a multi-ethnic country with a high proportion of ethnic minorities, with 64.5% being Moldovans, followed by Ukrainians, Russians, Gagauz, Bulgarians, Jews, and other ethnic minorities. The country gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, but ethnic conflict between Moldovans and Russians has become apparent. After World War II, Albania adopted a unique isolationist policy among the socialist countries. It transitioned to a market economy in 1991, but its economy has been chronically stagnant. Greece is of European origin historically and culturally, but currently relies on trade and tourism. It is also a member of the European Union (EU), and is heavily dependent on EU countries economically. Naturally, the EU has a strong influence in politics as well. Thus, it can be said that diversity and complexity are characteristic of the society and economy of the Balkan Peninsula. [Seinosuke Sasada] historyAncientSince prehistoric times, the Balkan Peninsula has been a land of passage for various human groups and a place where civilizations intersected. Agriculture and livestock farming, which began in the Balkan Peninsula around 6500 BC, spread throughout the peninsula around 5000 BC, forming the first early agricultural society in Europe and ushering in the Neolithic period. It is believed that the indigenous people who carried this Neolithic culture and the Indo-European ethnic groups who migrated from the northern shore of the Black Sea merged to form the various ethnic groups that appear in Homer's epics and other works. The Greeks, who built the Mycenaean civilization in the southern Balkan Peninsula, formed polis (city-states) from the second half of the 8th century BC and established colonies on the Adriatic and Black Sea coasts. The Illyrians lived in the mid-west, the Thracians in the east, the Getae in the lower Danube region north of the Balkan Mountains, and the Dacians in Transylvania. Around 334 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia launched an eastern expedition from the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula as a base, and subjugated most of the peninsula. As Rome expanded eastward, the Balkan Peninsula gradually became a Roman province, and its territory at one time extended across the Danube into Dacia. Rome built cities as it conquered, and also constructed major roads connecting these cities. When Byzantium (Constantinople) became the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD, the Balkans began to play a role as a food supplier, and after the Roman Empire was divided into two, the Balkans became even more important as the central region of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), which lasted for over 1,000 years. [Makoto Kimura] middle agesFrom the 4th century onwards, the Balkan Peninsula was subject to the migration of the Goths and invasions by the Huns and Avars, but from the 6th to 8th centuries, the migration and settlement of the South Slavic tribes in the Balkan Peninsula became more active, and the Slavicization of the Balkan Peninsula progressed. Many of the groups that reached the southern tip of the peninsula, the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor merged with the Greeks, while the indigenous peoples such as the Illyrians migrated to mountainous regions. The Bulgars, who advanced to the lower Danube basin along the Black Sea coast, initially dominated the Slavs, and later merged with them, repeatedly competing and allied with the Byzantine Empire, forming the First and Second Bulgarian Empires (7th to 11th centuries and 12th to 14th centuries). During the reigns of Boris I and Simeon I in the 9th century, they accepted Christianity and succeeded in expanding their territory. The Nemanjanid Serbian Kingdom (12th to 14th centuries) was also established, and the medieval state reached its peak during the reign of Emperor Stevan Dušan. Furthermore, the Bosnian Kingdom was formed in the 14th and 15th centuries. Meanwhile, the Slovenes who settled in the upper reaches of the Sava River were incorporated into the Frankish Kingdom, and from the 13th century onwards came under the rule of the Habsburgs. The Croats, who had been influenced by the Frankish Kingdom and the Byzantine Empire, formed an independent state at the end of the 9th century, and for a time achieved political unification of the Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia regions. However, in 1102 they came under Hungarian rule, and in Dalmatia the influence of Venice grew stronger from the 15th century onwards. North of the Danube River, the principalities of Wallachia and Moldova (Moldavia) achieved independence. [Makoto Kimura] Ottoman ruleTo counter the Serbian Kingdom, the Byzantine Empire asked the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia for help, which became an opportunity for the Ottoman Empire to expand its power. In 1354, the Ottoman Empire gained a base for its advance into the Balkans, defeating the Serbian-led Christian coalition in the Battle of Kosovo, solidifying Ottoman rule in the Balkans. It also acquired Thrace, Bulgaria, and Macedonia, and in 1453 conquered Constantinople, destroying the Byzantine Empire. By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had directly and indirectly controlled Bosnia, Albania, Greece, Wallachia, and Moldova, politically unifying the Balkan Peninsula. In the 16th century, it captured Belgrade, and after the Battle of Mohács, it took control of Croatia, Slavonia, and Banat, which were Hungarian territories, and made Transylvania a vassal state. The rebellion of Skanderbeg in Albania and the unification of Wallachia, Moldova, and Transylvania by Michael the Brave were also temporary. The migration of Turks to the Balkans following the expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the conversion of indigenous peoples to Islam in Bosnia and other places led to Turkification and Islamization, but Greek and other merchants established trading posts in various places, and urban areas were multicultural spaces where people of diverse languages and religions lived in professional groups. In Balkan society under Ottoman rule, a certain degree of autonomy was given to religious communities, not only Muslims but also Christians, Jews, and others, but the form of this autonomy varied and varied depending on the region and the era. [Kimura Makoto] The formation of the modern nationThe military decline of the Ottoman Empire became decisive after the failure of the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, and its defeat by the Austrian army led by Eugene of Savoy in 1697. In 1699, the Treaty of Karlowitz led to the abandonment of Hungary and Transylvania. Furthermore, the Treaty of Kucuk-Kainarci, concluded after the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, gave Russia the right to free navigation in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, and the right to protect the Orthodox Christian residents of the Ottoman Empire, which became the basis for interference in its internal affairs. After this, the Eastern Problem unfolded between the declining Ottoman Empire, the European powers that were in conflict over its territory, and the Balkan powers that sought autonomy and independence. In the second half of the 18th century, powerful Muslim figures rose to power, and powerful clans such as Ali Pasha, who broke away from the Ottoman central government and established their own spheres of influence, appeared in various parts of the Balkans. The process of the formation of the modern Balkan states was influenced by these internal and external circumstances, as well as the situation in the European powers after the Napoleonic Wars, but the "national revival movement," which saw the establishment of a written language, the collection of folklore, and the founding of literary societies, was also a component part of the process. As a result of two Serbian uprisings in the early 19th century, Serbia became an autonomous principality under Ottoman suzerainty, and the Greek War of Independence gave birth to the independent state of Greece in 1830, with Britain, France, and Russia as protectorates. The principalities of Wallachia and Moldova were virtually united at the Paris Conference following the Crimean War. As a result of the Berlin Conference in 1878, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania became independent, Bulgaria became a principality (independent in 1908), and Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire (annexed in 1908). The Balkan countries set expansionist national goals such as Greater Hellenicism, Greater Serbianism, Greater Bulgarianism, and Greater Romanianism, and competed with each other in modernization and military expansion. As a result of the Second Balkan War, Albania became independent, Macedonia was divided between Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria, and the Ottoman territories in the Balkans were limited to the imperial capital of Istanbul and eastern Thrace. When the First World War broke out in the wake of the Sarajevo incident in 1914, all of the Balkan countries entered the conflict, and the peninsula once again became a battlefield. After the war, a series of peace treaties were concluded at the Paris Peace Conference, and the Treaty of Lausanne, which was concluded as a result of the Greco-Turkish War, established borders, and the Balkan countries were incorporated into the Versailles system. [Kimura Makoto] Interwar periodAfter World War I, the Balkan countries were in different environments, such as victorious and defeated countries, territorial expansion and contraction, war damage, and geopolitical positions, but they shared common issues such as ethnic minority issues, parliamentary democracy, and improving living standards. The Kingdom of Serbia, the Kingdom of Montenegro, and the areas that had belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire were integrated to form the South Slavic state "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes." The Kingdom of Romania also integrated Transylvania, Banat, Bukovina, and Bessarabia (Greater Romania), but the historical experiences, socio-economic characteristics, and ethnic minority issues of each region made national integration difficult. Population exchange agreements were concluded between Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria in an attempt to resolve the refugee and ethnic minority issues that arose during the war, and the homogenization and assimilation of the local residents was promoted. Politically, the Balkan countries introduced universal male suffrage and established an institutional framework for parliamentary democracy under constitutional monarchy, but they experienced repeated changes of government, including military coups, and a dictatorial regime was established by the king from the late 1920s to the end of the 1930s. Economically, they were unable to improve agricultural technology or solve the problem of rural overpopulation, and industrialization did not progress. In the 1930s, they entered the economic sphere of Germany and Italy, and during World War II they were incorporated under the influence of both countries, either as political and military allies or through occupation. [Kimura Makoto] Cold WarIn the Balkan countries, the Axis powers were eliminated by the Communist Party and other resistance movements and the Soviet military offensive, and there was a certain degree of political choice until 1948 after World War II. However, as the Cold War progressed, countries were incorporated into the East and West camps. Greece was the only country incorporated into the Western camp due to an agreement between the major powers on spheres of influence, and experienced a civil war due to left-right conflict. A military regime was established for a time, but it was transferred to civilian rule and the country joined the EC (European Community). Yugoslavia, led by Tito, pursued its own path, including self-managed socialism and non-alignment, after the expulsion of the Cominform in 1948. Albania criticized Stalin and pursued a pro-China line in the Sino-Soviet dispute, but after the death of Mao Zedong, it closed its doors to the outside world and became increasingly isolated. Romania had the long-term government of Ceausescu, and Bulgaria had the long-term government of Zhivkov, and in diplomacy, they contrasted between independent diplomacy and pro-Soviet policy, but both implemented domestic policies using nationalism as a lever. With the exception of Albania, which adopted an isolationist approach, each country made progress in modernization, including the development of social infrastructure, more than in the interwar period. [Kimura Makoto] present daySince the 1980s, the economic stagnation of the Balkan socialist countries has been remarkable, and the policy of oppressing ethnic minorities has shown the deadlock of the government. Since the appearance of Gorbachev and the Eastern European Revolution, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania have transitioned from a de facto one-party communist system to a multi-party system, and while market economics have progressed, nationalism has also become apparent. Issues such as the recognition of Macedonia and Greece as a nation, which escalated to the point of changing the country's name and flag (resolved in 2019 when Macedonia changed its name to the "Republic of North Macedonia"), the issue of Hungarian residents living in the Transylvania region of Romania, and the conflict between political forces over the unification of the Republic of Moldova with Romania, which gained independence from the Soviet Union, have surfaced. In Yugoslavia, after the death of Tito, who was the key to the unification of the federation, Milosevic rose to power, using the Kosovo issue as leverage to advocate Serbian nationalism, and called for the strengthening of the federation. In the 1990 federal republic elections, nationalist parties won in all but the Communist Party of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Yugoslav Federation broke apart in 1991, triggered by the declaration of independence by Slovenia and Croatia, and the Yugoslav Wars broke out. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) carried out air strikes to resolve the Kosovo issue, but at the same time, the Balkan Foreign Ministers' Conference continued and the first Balkan Summit was held, providing a forum for dialogue within the Balkan region. [Makoto Kimura] "Modern World History 24: Modern Balkan History" by Kido Tsutomu (1977, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "World History 19: Byzantium and the Eastern European World" by Toriyama Shigeto (1978, Kodansha)" ▽ "Balkan History" by C&B Jelavic, translated by Kido Tsutomu and Nohara Miyoko (1982, Kobunsha)" ▽ "Balkan Nationalism" edited by Shiba Yoshihiro (1996, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "The Establishment of the Eastern European World" by Hosokawa Shigeru (1997, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "World History of the World 18: Balkan History" edited by Shiba Yoshihiro (1998, Yamakawa Publishing)" [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Moldavia| | | | |Located in southwestern Croatia, it is the center of Adriatic tourism. Roman ruins remain, including Diocletian's Palace. World Heritage Site "Historic Site of Split and Diocletian's Palace" (Croatia, registered in 1979) Split, Croatia ©Masashi Tanaka "> Split city Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
ヨーロッパ南東部の地中海東部に突き出た半島。東から黒海、マルマラ海、エーゲ海、イオニア海、アドリア海に囲まれている。半島の付け根の部分をなすのはドナウ川とそれに合流するサバ川である。平野部は少なく、多くの褶曲(しゅうきょく)山脈とその谷をなす河川によって構成される。しかしそれらは半島部への人々の移動を妨げるものではなかった。バルカン半島はヨーロッパとアジアの結節点に位置し、交通の要(かなめ)であったので、商業活動はもちろん軍事的にも重要であり、古来多くの人間集団の流入、移動がみられた。イベリア半島(スペイン、ポルトガル)より小さく、イタリア半島の2倍の面積があり、東西約1300キロメートル、南北約1000キロメートル、面積約50万平方キロメートル。 半島名はブルガリア中部を東西に走るバルカン山脈(スタラ・プラニナ山脈)に由来するが、この「バルカン」ということばはオスマン(トルコ)語で「山脈」を意味した。「バルカン」が半島名として使われ始めたのは19世紀の初頭で、その名称が普及、定着していくのは19世紀末からバルカン戦争、第一次世界大戦にかけての時期であった。この過程で「バルカン」は地理的概念としてだけではなく、歴史的・政治的概念としても認識され、前述の地理的範囲である半島内に領土が限定されるアルバニア、ブルガリアだけではなく、半島外部にも領土が及ぶ旧ユーゴスラビア、ルーマニア、ギリシア、トルコなどもバルカン諸国とみなされるようになった。しかし地理的概念と政治的概念との間にはつねにずれがあり、現在も歴史的・政治的概念規定は確立されたものとはいいがたい。たとえばトルコ共和国はバルカン半島に領土の一部をもつが、現在のトルコをバルカン諸国とすることはむずかしい。一方、かつてソ連の構成共和国であったモルドバをバルカン諸国に含むことは、ルーマニアとの歴史的共有性から妥当といえよう。さらに歴史的・政治的に「バルカン」を限定することが困難なのは、同地域の歴史的・文化的重層性にもよるが、半島内外の人々の「バルカン」認識の過程にもその一因をみることができる。西ヨーロッパ諸国での「バルカン」という名称の定着はさまざまな戦争の時代と重なり、「対立」「抗争」「無秩序」「後進性」といった負のイメージとともに認識されたため、バルカン諸国における「バルカン」認識には複雑なものがある。ブルガリアのように、半島の名称としてだけでなく、その歴史のなかで重要な役割を果たしてきた山脈の名称としても「バルカン」を認識し、肯定的にとらえていたり、一方、ルーマニアのように、地理的概念としてのバルカンに国土の大半が属さず、両世界大戦間期以来、歴史研究者をはじめ、国民一般が自国を南東欧として把握し、バルカンと距離を置く伝統をもっていたりとさまざまである。また旧ユーゴスラビアの分離解体に伴って、クロアチア、スロベニアでは、自国を中部ヨーロッパとして認識し、バルカンや旧ユーゴスラビアと切り離して考える傾向が強まっている。 地理的概念をもとに、さらに歴史的・政治的概念を考慮すると、バルカン半島に属する国として、以下の各国をあげることが可能である。すなわちアルバニア、ギリシア、北マケドニア共和国、ブルガリア、セルビア、モンテネグロ、コソボ、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ、クロアチア、スロベニア、ルーマニア、モルドバである。地理的な要素だけを考えれば、トルコのヨーロッパ大陸部分も含まれる。 [木村 真] 地形全体に山がきわめて多く、西側をアドリア海に接して北から南にディナル・アルプスが走り、ピンドス山脈などに連なり、南の部分は複雑な地形をもってエーゲ海とイオニア海に取り囲まれている。各山脈は石灰岩からなり、カルスト地形が発達し、海岸と内陸との障壁をなしている。アドリア海沿岸およびギリシアの大部分には、バルダル川を除いては河流のみるべきものはないが、大小の湖沼は多い。東部にはカルパティア山脈に続くトランシルバニア・アルプス、バルカン山脈、その南のロドピ山脈が東西に走る。これら山地の間をドナウ川ならびにその支流の諸河川が流れ、各地の孤立的傾向の一因となっている。水系は山脈の配列に支配され、大陸型の長流で緩やかな黒海流入水系(ドナウ川など)と、短流で急流のアドリア海流入水系(ネレトバ川など)、およびエーゲ海流入水系(バルダル川など)の3水系に大別される。 [三井嘉都夫] 気候地中海性気候が卓越するが、山がちであるために内陸部に海洋性気候の影響がほとんど及ばず、内陸部は乾燥した大陸性気候となっている。地中海性気候は南部沿岸地帯とギリシア沿岸の島嶼(とうしょ)に顕著である。夏は暑く乾燥し、冬季に降雨があり、夏の乾燥に強いオリーブ栽培や白壁の家屋など文化様式にも影響を及ぼした。冬の穀物栽培の北限は地中海性気候の北限に一致している。アドリア海に臨むダルマチアの狭い沿岸は地中海性気候と大陸性気候との漸移帯をなし、一般に温暖で、オレンジ、オリーブが栽培されるが、北へ行くにつれて気候は著しく変わり、秋から冬にかけて内陸の山から吹き出してくる有名なボラとよばれる寒風の襲来により作物や人畜に被害が出ることも少なくない。しかしリエカ、ザダル、スプリト、ドゥブロブニクなどのアドリア海沿岸はその風光明媚(めいび)さにより夏季は観光客でにぎわう。エーゲ海の北部沿岸、マケドニア南部とトラキア西部は亜地中海性気候で、バルダル川の河谷から北風が吹き下ろすため、寒暑の差が大きくなる。この地方は地中海の果樹栽培の北限をなしている。バルカン内陸部の大部分は大陸性気候で、山脈の起伏により多少の変化はあるが、年降水量は西部で700~1500ミリメートル、東部で400~700ミリメートルと減じ、ロシア平原の北風にさらされるトラキア地方はステップ(短草草原)状である。 [三井嘉都夫] 社会と経済バルカン半島には、歴史的背景や言語・宗教などの文化的要素、また少数民族の存在などが複雑に絡んでいくつかの国家が形成されている。第二次世界大戦後、各国には社会主義政権が樹立され、五か年計画に基づき、工業の発展を目ざした経済運営が行われてきたが、それぞれの国の経済のなかで、なお農業など第一次産業の占める割合が高く、経済の後進性を残していた。しかし1989年以降、社会主義体制が崩壊し、市場経済が導入された。 旧ユーゴスラビアの場合、民族構成はセルビア人、クロアチア人など、多民族国家であった。20世紀初頭まで外国の支配を受けていたこと、セルビア語、クロアチア語、スロベニア語、マケドニア語の4言語が使われていたこと、正教、カトリック、イスラム教の3宗教が信仰されていたこと、アルバニア系やイスラム系の少数民族が存在していたことなどが絡み、旧ユーゴスラビアは6共和国と2自治州の連邦国家を形成していた。政府は企業間競争や労働者の企業自主管理制度などを認め、新しい社会主義を目ざしたが、国内の南北の経済格差が顕著なことや、少数民族の自治権拡大などの問題を抱え、1991年以降、スロベニア、クロアチア、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ、マケドニア(2019年国名を北マケドニア共和国に変更)が相次いで独立し、セルビアとモンテネグロは新しくユーゴスラビア連邦を形成(2003年新たな連合国家として国名を「セルビア・モンテネグロ」へと変更)した。ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナは、1992年に正教のセルビア人、カトリックのクロアチア人、イスラム教のモスレム人が勢力圏を三分し、いわゆる「民族浄化の戦い」(ボスニア内戦、ボスニア紛争)を始めた。1995年デイトン合意により妥協的な取決めがなされたが、根本的な解決には至っていない。また、2003年新ユーゴスラビアは連合国家セルビア・モンテネグロとなったが、モンテネグロでは、かねてより独立志向が強く、その後2006年6月に独立を宣言、独立国家モンテネグロ共和国となった。また、モンテネグロの独立を受け、セルビアは、セルビア・モンテネグロの承継国として独立国家セルビア共和国となり、セルビア・モンテネグロという連合国家は消滅。こうして、かつて旧ユーゴスラビアを構成した6共和国スロベニア、クロアチア、マケドニア、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ、セルビア、モンテネグロは、それぞれ独立国家となった。セルビアのコソボ自治州では、独立を求めるアルバニア人勢力とセルビア当局が争うコソボ問題(コソボ紛争)が続き、2008年2月17日コソボ議会が独立宣言を採択。アメリカやEU諸国が独立を認め、日本も同年3月コソボ共和国を国家として承認した。 ブルガリアの場合は、南スラブ系のブルガリア人が85%を占めるが、かつてトルコの支配下にあったため、トルコ人が9%を占める。ギリシア正教のほか、イスラム教が信仰されている。もともと後れた農業国であったが、社会主義時代に五か年計画の実施やソ連の援助などで工業が発達した。産業人口の約4分の1が第一次産業、約5分の2が第二次産業に従事している。ルーマニアはラテン系のルーマニア人が約90%を占め、そのほかにハンガリー人やロマ人がいる。1989年の社会主義体制崩壊後に市場経済に移行したが、経済は順調とはいいがたい。モルドバは64.5%がモルドバ人で、ついでウクライナ人、ロシア人、ガガウズ人、ブルガリア人、ユダヤ人、その他の少数民族と、少数民族の比率の高い多民族国家である。1991年にソ連から独立したが、モルドバ人とロシア人の民族対立があらわになっている。アルバニアは第二次世界大戦後、社会主義国家群のなかでも独自の鎖国政策をとってきた。1991年市場経済に移行したが、経済の停滞は慢性的である。ギリシアは歴史的、文化的にはヨーロッパの起源をなすが、現在は貿易や観光などに頼っている。ヨーロッパ連合(EU)の加盟国でもあり、経済面でEU諸国に強く依存している。政治面でも当然ながらEUの影響が強い。このように、多様さと複雑さがバルカン半島の社会と経済の特徴をなしているといえる。 [佐々田誠之助] 歴史古代先史時代以来、バルカン半島はさまざまな人間集団の往来する土地であり、文明が交錯する土地であった。紀元前6500年ごろからバルカン半島で始まった農耕牧畜は紀元前5000年ごろには半島全域に広がり、ヨーロッパで最初に初期農耕社会が形成され新石器時代が始まった。この新石器文化の担い手である先住民と黒海北岸から移動してきたインド・ヨーロッパ語系の民族集団が融合して、ホメロスの叙事詩などに現れる諸民族が形成されたと考えられる。 バルカン半島南部でミケーネ文明を築いたギリシア人は、紀元前8世紀後半からポリス(都市国家)を形成し、アドリア海、黒海沿岸に植民市を建設した。中西部にはイリリア人、東部にはトラキア人が、またバルカン山脈以北のドナウ川下流地域にはゲタイ人、トランシルバニア地域にはダキア人が居住した。紀元前334年ごろ、マケドニアのアレクサンドロス大王はバルカン半島の南部を拠点に東方遠征を行い、半島の大半を従えた。その後ローマの東方進出によりバルカン半島はしだいにローマの属州となり、その支配領域は一時ドナウ川を越えてダキアにまで及んだ。ローマは征服活動とともに都市建設を行い、さらにその都市を結ぶ幹線道路も建設された。紀元後330年にビザンティウム(コンスタンティノープル)がローマ帝国の首都となったことで、バルカン半島は食料供給地としての役割が生まれ、さらにローマ帝国の東西分裂後、1000年以上存続した東ローマ帝国(ビザンティン帝国)の中心地域としてバルカン半島は重要性を増した。 [木村 真] 中世4世紀以降バルカン半島は東西ゴート人の移動やフン人、アバール人の侵入を受けるが、6世紀から8世紀にかけて南スラブ諸族のバルカン半島への移動、定住が活発になり、バルカン半島のスラブ化が進んだ。また半島南端、さらにエーゲ海、小アジアに到達したグループの多くはギリシア人と融合し、イリリア人など先住民は山岳地域に移住した。黒海沿岸ドナウ下流域に進出したブルガール人は、当初スラブ人を支配し、後には融合しながら、ビザンティン帝国と競合、同盟を繰り返し、第一次、第二次ブルガリア帝国(7~11世紀、12~14世紀)を形成した。9世紀のボリス1世、シメオン1世の時代にはキリスト教を受容し、領土拡大に成功した。またネマーニャ朝セルビア王国(12~14世紀)が成立し、ステバン・ドゥシャン帝の時代にその中世国家は隆盛を極めた。さらに14~15世紀にはボスニア王国が形成された。一方サバ川上流部に定住したスロベニア人はフランク王国に組み込まれ、13世紀以降はハプスブルク家支配下に入った。フランク王国とビザンティン帝国の影響を受けていたクロアチア人は9世紀末に独立国家を形成し、一時はスラボニア、クロアチア、ダルマチア地域の政治的統一も果たした。しかし1102年ハンガリー支配下に入り、ダルマチアでは15世紀以降ベネチアの影響が強まった。ドナウ川以北ではワラキア、モルドバ(モルダビア)の両公国が独立を果たした。 [木村 真] オスマン支配セルビア王国に対抗するためビザンティン帝国はアナトリアのオスマン朝に援助を求めたが、これはオスマン朝の勢力拡大の機会となった。1354年にバルカン進出の拠点を得たオスマン帝国は、コソボの戦いでセルビアを中心とするキリスト教徒連合軍を破るなど、バルカンでのオスマン支配を決定づけ、トラキア、ブルガリア、マケドニアを獲得し、1453年にはコンスタンティノープルを征服してビザンティン帝国を滅亡させた。15世紀末までにオスマン帝国はボスニア、アルバニア、ギリシア、ワラキア、モルドバを直接、間接に支配し、バルカン半島を政治的に統一した。さらに16世紀にはベオグラードを陥落させ、モハーチの戦いを経てハンガリー領のクロアチア、スラボニア、バナートなどを支配下に収め、トランシルバニアを属国とした。アルバニアのスカンデルベグの反乱やミハイ勇敢王によるワラキア、モルドバ、トランシルバニア統一も一時的なものであった。オスマン帝国進出に伴うバルカン半島へのトルコ人の移住や、ボスニアなどにおける先住民のイスラムへの改宗により、トルコ化、イスラム化が進んだが、ギリシア系をはじめとする商人は各地に商館を築き、都市部は多様な言語、宗教をもつ人々が職能集団を形成して居住する多文化的空間だった。オスマン支配下のバルカン社会では、ムスリムだけでなくキリスト教徒やユダヤ教徒などの宗教共同体にも一定の自治が与えられたが、その形態は地域、時代によっても差があり多様なものであった。 [木村 真] 近代国家形成オスマン帝国の軍事的衰退は1683年第二次ウィーン包囲失敗後、1697年サボイ公オイゲン率いるオーストリア軍に敗れて決定的となり、1699年のカルロウィッツ条約でハンガリー、トランシルバニアを放棄した。さらに1768~1774年のロシア・トルコ戦争(露土戦争)後に締結されたクチュク・カイナルジ条約によって、ロシアは黒海とエーゲ海の自由航行権、オスマン帝国内の正教徒住民の保護権を獲得し、内政干渉の根拠となった。これ以降衰退するオスマン帝国と、その領土をめぐって対立するヨーロッパ列強、自治・独立を求めるバルカン諸勢力の間で東方問題が展開された。18世紀後半にはムスリムの有力者が台頭し、オスマン中央から独立して勢力圏を築いたアリ・パシャのような豪族がバルカン各地に現れた。近代バルカン国家形成のプロセスには、こうした内外の環境やナポレオン戦争以降のヨーロッパ列強諸国の情勢が影響を与えたが、文語確立や民間伝承収集、文芸協会設立などの「民族再生運動」もその構成要素となった。 19世紀初頭の二度にわたるセルビア蜂起(ほうき)の結果、セルビアはオスマンの宗主権のもとで自治公国となり、ギリシア独立戦争は1830年イギリス、フランス、ロシア3国を保護国とする独立国家ギリシアを誕生させた。ワラキア、モルドバ両公国はクリミア戦争後のパリ会議を経て事実上合同を果たした。1878年ベルリン会議の結果、セルビア、モンテネグロ、ルーマニアは独立、ブルガリアは公国(1908年独立)となり、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナはオーストリア・ハンガリー帝国占領下(1908年併合)に置かれた。バルカン諸国は大ギリシア主義、大セルビア主義、大ブルガリア主義、大ルーマニア主義など膨張主義的な国家目標を掲げ、近代化と軍備拡充を競い合った。二次にわたるバルカン戦争の結果、アルバニアは独立、マケドニアはギリシア、セルビア、ブルガリアによって分割され、バルカン半島のオスマン領は帝都イスタンブールと東トラキアのみとなった。 1914年サライエボ事件を端緒として第一次世界大戦が勃発(ぼっぱつ)するとバルカン諸国はいずれも参戦し、半島は再度戦場となった。戦後パリ講和会議で結ばれた一連の講和条約と、ギリシア・トルコ戦争の結果締結されたローザンヌ条約によって国境線が画定し、バルカン諸国はベルサイユ体制に組み込まれた。 [木村 真] 両世界大戦間期第一次世界大戦後のバルカン諸国は、戦勝国・敗戦国、領土の拡大・縮小、戦争被害、地政学的位置など、それぞれ異なる環境にありながらも、少数民族問題、議会制民主主義、生活水準向上など共通の課題を抱えていた。セルビア王国、モンテネグロ王国、それにオーストリア・ハンガリー帝国に属していた諸地域が統合され、南スラブ人国家「セルビア人・クロアチア人・スロベニア人王国」が形成された。またルーマニア王国はトランシルバニア、バナート、ブコビナ、ベッサラビアを統合したが(大ルーマニア)、各地域の歴史的経験、社会経済的特徴や少数民族問題は国民統合をむずかしくした。ギリシア、トルコ、ブルガリアの間では住民交換協定が結ばれ、戦時中に生じた難民問題や少数民族問題の解消が試みられ、地域住民の均質化、同化が進められた。 バルカン諸国は政治的には男子普通選挙制を導入し、立憲君主制のもとで議会制民主主義の制度的枠組みを確立したが、軍事クーデターを含む政権交代が繰り返され、1920年代後半から1930年代末にかけて国王による独裁体制が敷かれた。経済的には農業技術改善や農村人口過剰問題を解決できず、工業化も進まなかった。1930年代にはドイツ、イタリアの経済圏に入り、第二次世界大戦期には政治的・軍事的同盟国として、あるいは占領によって、両国の勢力下に組み込まれた。 [木村 真] 東西冷戦期バルカン諸国では、共産党をはじめとする抵抗運動やソ連軍の攻勢によって枢軸勢力が排除され、第二次世界大戦後の1948年までは一定の政治的選択の幅が存在した。しかし冷戦の進展とともに東西陣営に組み込まれていった。ギリシアは大国間の勢力圏合意により唯一西側陣営に組み込まれ、左右対立によって内戦を経験した。その後一時軍事政権が成立したが民政移管され、EC(ヨーロッパ共同体)加盟を果たした。チトー率いるユーゴスラビアは1948年コミンフォルム追放後、自主管理社会主義、非同盟など独自路線を歩んだ。アルバニアはスターリン批判、中ソ論争で親中路線を進んだが、毛沢東没後は対外的に門戸を閉ざし孤立を深めた。ルーマニアではチャウシェスク、ブルガリアではジフコフの長期政権が生まれ、外交的には自主外交と親ソ路線の対照をなしたが、いずれもナショナリズムをテコにして国内政策を実施した。孤立主義をとったアルバニアを除けば、各国とも戦間期以上に社会インフラ整備など近代化が進展した。 [木村 真] 現代1980年代以降、バルカン社会主義諸国の経済停滞は著しく、また少数民族抑圧政策は政権の行き詰まりを表していた。ゴルバチョフの登場から東欧革命をへて、ブルガリア、ルーマニア、アルバニアでは事実上の共産党一党体制から複数政党制への移行が行われ、市場経済化が進む一方、民族主義も顕在化している。国名国旗の変更にまで発展したマケドニアとギリシアの国家承認問題(2019年にマケドニアが「北マケドニア共和国」に国名を変更することにより決着)、ルーマニアのトランシルバニア地方に住むハンガリー系住民問題、さらに、ソ連から独立したモルドバ共和国におけるルーマニアとの統一をめぐる政治勢力の対立などが表面化している。ユーゴスラビアでは、連邦統合の要(かなめ)であったチトー没後、コソボ問題をテコにセルビア民族主義を掲げてミロシェビッチが台頭し、連邦強化を求めた。1990年の連邦構成共和国選挙では、共産党系が勝利したセルビア、モンテネグロを除いて民族主義政党が勝利し、1991年のスロベニア、クロアチアの独立宣言に端を発してユーゴ連邦は分離解体し、ユーゴ紛争が起こった。コソボ問題解決のためNATO(ナトー)(北大西洋条約機構)による空爆も実行されたが、その一方でバルカン外相会議が継続され、初のバルカン・サミットが開催されるなど、バルカン地域内の対話の場も設けられている。 [木村 真] 『木戸蓊著『世界現代史24 バルカン現代史』(1977・山川出版社)』▽『鳥山成人著『世界の歴史19 ビザンツと東欧世界』(1978・講談社)』▽『C&B・ジェラビッチ著、木戸蓊・野原美代子訳『バルカン史』(1982・恒文社)』▽『柴宜弘編『バルカンの民族主義』(1996・山川出版社)』▽『細川滋著『東欧世界の成立』(1997・山川出版社)』▽『柴宜弘編『世界各国史18 バルカン史』(1998・山川出版社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |クロアチア南西部に位置するアドリア海観光の中心地。ディオクレティアヌスの宮殿など、ローマ時代の遺跡が残る。世界文化遺産「スプリトの史跡群とディオクレティアヌス宮殿」(クロアチア・1979年登録) クロアチア スプリト©Masashi Tanaka"> スプリト市街 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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