Puppet show
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Puppet theatre is characterized by actors (puppeteers) manipulating plastic dolls to perform dramatic expressions, and, along with human theatre and masked theatre, it constitutes one of the three most basic forms of theatre. Its origins can be traced back to the animistic belief that all things have souls and shamanistic magic that led to the use of various dolls in productive events and festivals. These eventually evolved into puppet theater. Compared to human theater, puppet theater places greater emphasis on expression through "movement" rather than "words," and artistic effects play a major role. It is full of fantasy and sometimes even eerie, but it also has the characteristic of easily and strongly affecting the psychology of young children. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Classification of puppet shows
[Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Rod PuppetThe original form of the stick puppet is a single stick itself, with a head at the end and operated by gripping the bottom, and the "Oshirasama" of the Tohoku region is a typical example. What was once called a "stick-headed puppet" was also of this form, and in the West it was called a marotte. Taking advantage of its simple structure, excellent performances have been created in modern puppet theater, and this form has been rediscovered. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Hand PuppetHand puppets are puppets in which the puppeteer inserts his or her hand inside the puppet and manipulates it by moving the fingers and wrist. There are one-handed and two-handed puppets, and their shapes, such as the way the fingers are used, are diverse. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] One-handed puppetOne-handed puppets, which are widely used in Western Europe, the Near East, and Asia, are of the glove type, and are called guignol in France and puppetry in China. In Japan, the Kirakubo doll that Emperor Gomizunoo loved, and the Azuki Doji doll at Kohyo Shrine in Nakatsu City, Oita Prefecture, are of this type, with a finger inserted into the doll's neck. However, traditional hand puppets, such as the Fukusa Doll, Mame Doll, and Te Doll that are found all over Japan, as well as the Sarukura Doll of Akita Prefecture, are of the scissor type, with the short stick at the bottom of the neck pinched between the index finger and middle finger, which can be said to be a style unique to Japan. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Two-handed puppetTwo-handed puppets are operated by inserting both hands inside the puppet, and there are several types of structure and operation methods. During the Genroku period (1688-1704), there was already a style in which both hands were inserted from the bottom or back of the puppet, but the internal structure is unknown and it is thought to have been similar to the form used in today's Noroma puppets, the "Yunde style." The style widely used today, in which the puppet's neck is manipulated with the left hand and both hands are inserted into the fingers of the right hand, dates back to 1933 (Showa 8). In recent years, a style in which the puppet's head is placed on the thumb of the puppeteer's one hand, and the remaining four fingers and the other hand stick out from the costume to make the puppet's hands, was invented in the former Czechoslovakia, but due to its unique effect, it has spread to other countries. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Finger puppetsA small puppet that is manipulated by holding it on one or two fingers is called a finger puppet. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Facial Expression DollA type of puppet whose face is made of soft materials such as cloth or rubber and whose facial expression can be changed by hand movements from the inside can also be considered a type of hand-operated puppet. The Muppets, puppets with mouths that open and close, developed by the American J. Henson, quickly spread throughout the world. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Rod Puppet"Bōtsukai" is a general term for a style in which puppets are operated with thin sticks or wires. There are many different forms and methods, such as those operated from below, behind or above. In Japan, the operating stick is called "sashigane," but bamboo skewers are sometimes used, and "kushi ningyo" (skewer puppets) belong to this style. Shadow puppetry in Indonesia, China and other countries also uses stick puppetry, and in the Czech Republic and Belgium, there is a style in which a wire is attached to the puppet's head and it is operated from above. Stick use from behind is also used in "black theater," a new stage expression. In recent years, stick use has become the mainstream method of modern puppetry, including on stage and on television. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] String PuppetString puppets are usually operated by hanging the puppet from above with strings attached to each joint of the puppet. The puppeteer operates the hanger (controller) and moves the puppet by manipulating several strings attached to the hanger. The number of strings can range from one to more than 20. The hanger is also called a "handboard" or "controller" and there are various types such as a dragonfly-shaped horizontal type and a vertical tiered type. In ancient China, they were called "suspended string puppets" and "wire puppets". In the West, they are called "marionettes", but at the same time, this is also used as a general term for puppet shows. In Japan during the Edo period, they were called "Nanking puppets", but there is a custom of using the word "Nanking" for pretty and cute things such as Nanking jade and Nanking iris, so it cannot be concluded from this name that they were introduced from China. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Holding PuppetThe "dakishi-tsukai" style is a general term for a style in which a relatively large puppet is held and manipulated by a person, which is a further development of the two-handed structure that was probably used from the Genroku period, as described in the "hand-operated puppet" section, and is combined with pole-operated and string-operated mechanisms. In addition to the three-person style of Bunraku puppet theater (Bunraku style) in which one puppet is operated by three people, there are also ones operated by one person and two people, and there are various other structures. In the three-person style, the "master puppeteer" controls the puppet's neck with his left hand and the right hand with his right hand, while another person controls the puppet's left hand and one person controls both legs. This style is said to have been invented in 1734 (Kyoho 19) by Yoshida Bunzaburo, a master puppeteer of the time. Prior to this, Edo-style three-person puppetry using a different method was performed by Edo Magoshiro. Also, from the end of the Edo period to the Meiji period, the "Goban Ningyo" that had been a parlor art form was developed and invented by the first Nishikawa Koryu, in which the puppeteer sits on a potter's wheel and holds the puppet while manipulating it. It is thought that around the same time, the "Kitabaru Ningyo" was born in Nakatsu City, Oita Prefecture, and is performed in a crouching position, called the "Goban Tsukai" or "Hasami Tsukai" style. In the Showa period, Osaka saw the development of the "Otome Bunraku" style of one-person puppetry, in which the puppeteer stands, connects the puppet's neck to his own head with strings, manipulates the puppet's hands with his own hands, and attaches the puppet's feet to his knees. There are two types: the arm-glove style (invented by Hayashi Niki) and the body-glove style (invented by Kiritakemonzo). The Tsume puppet, a minor character in Bunraku, is also operated by a single person, and the puppets used in ventriloquism in the West are almost the same type. In recent years, there has been a combination of Otome Bunraku and Kuruma Ningyo, known as the "Shoulder-Garden Kuruma Ningyo" (invented by Kawajiri Taiji). These methods have also been adopted in Europe, where they have been modified and used in a variety of different ways. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] othersThere are various types of "karakuri puppets," which are puppets with mechanical devices inside and operated with power from screws, weights, water, sand, etc., or by human power using strings or rods. There is also a trend toward greater diversity today, with "standing picture puppets" (also known as paper theaters) in which flat, fan-shaped puppets are operated by painting pictures on both sides, "table puppet shows" in which puppets are placed on a table and operated directly by hand, "karakuri operators" in which puppeteers get inside giant puppets over two meters tall and use karakuri mechanisms to operate them as theaters get larger, and puppets operated using computers. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Stagecraft styleThe above is a classification based primarily on the shape of the puppets and how they are operated, but what follows are additional special forms in terms of directing techniques. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Shadow Puppet ShowShadow puppetry is a type of performance where a screen is stretched across a screen, a light source is placed behind the puppets, and the puppets are made of animal hide or cardboard and are performed with sticks, with their shadows projected onto the screen. The most famous example is the Indonesian "Wayang Kulit". In Western Europe, it is called shadow puppet. This style has been performed in India, China and other parts of Asia since ancient times, but it was introduced from China to France in the 17th century and then spread to Europe. Shadow puppetry did not develop much in Japan, and instead a type of "utsushi-e" was developed, which uses several magic lanterns called "furo" to display multiple images on a single screen. In recent years, Japanese shadow puppetry has adapted this technique to perform vividly colored shadow puppet shows on large screens. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Black TheatreThe technique of black theatre is a directing technique developed in the former Czechoslovakia in the late 1950s, and is widely used as the newest technique of stage expression. It is also called black theatre. It is performed by applying recently developed stage lighting technology, and there are two methods: one in which only puppets or objects are made to appear to float in a space of controlled light in front of a black background and operated, and another in which puppets painted with fluorescent paint are made to glow with invisible ultraviolet light. In both cases, the puppeteers wear black clothing and are invisible to the audience. The puppets move freely around the stage space, and their magnificent fantastical expressions are spreading to other performing arts in general. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] TravelIn Bunraku, the puppeteer removes his black hood and shows his face when controlling the puppet, which is called detsukai, and has recently become a new directing technique in modern puppet theater. In traditional puppet theater, the aim was to create a world of only the puppets, with the puppeteer hiding behind a screen as much as possible, but nowadays various possibilities are being explored by actively having the puppeteer and puppeteer exist simultaneously in the stage space. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] History of puppetryIt is no exaggeration to say that all peoples in the world have puppet theater in some form or another. There are documents about puppet theater from ancient times in India, China, Egypt, and Greece. In modern times, there are books such as "The Home of Puppet Theater" (1900) by R. Pichel, "The History of Puppet Theater in Europe" (1852) by C. Manian, "The History of Puppet Theater" (1959) by G. Batty and R. Chavans, and "The History of Puppet Theater in the World" (1933) by Jiro Nanko, but none of them have yet reached a consensus on the history of puppet theater. Rather than seeking its origin in a specific region or ethnic group, it is more appropriate to think that puppet theater arose in a multifaceted way in the development of human culture, gradually developing in relation to each productive and everyday event and religion, and spreading and integrating through trade and sometimes invasion between various ethnic groups, leading to the formation of puppet theater with the characteristics of each ethnic group. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] OrientalIt is said that puppets were introduced to China from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty, but there are records that puppet shows were already popular during the Song Dynasty, with various types including stick puppets, hanging string puppets, medicine puppets, water puppets, and flesh puppets. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, hand-operated glove puppets and stick-operated forms appeared, and glove puppets were introduced from Fujian to Taiwan during the Qing dynasty and saw their own unique development. Shadow puppetry, known in China as hieigi (Pi Shadow Play), has been practiced since ancient times in Southeast Asia, including India, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Burma (Myanmar), with many performances of stories from Indian mythology such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. In particular, the wayang kulit of Java and Bali in Indonesia, combined with gamelan music, produces excellent theatrical effects. Depending on the country, puppets are made from the skin of donkeys, cows, water buffaloes, and other animals. The Turkish shadow puppet "karagoz" is made from camel skin and is said to have been introduced from Egypt, but is now also performed in Greece as "karagosis." [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Western EuropeIt is said that European puppet theater was already widespread throughout Greece in the 1st century AD, and there are descriptions of puppet theater by Socrates and Aristotle, but the details are unknown. In the Middle Ages, when Christianity was strongly dominant, puppet theater was kept alive by street performers and performances in monasteries that violated the ban, and it was only with the Renaissance that it finally showed its original vitality. Pulcinella, one of the characters in Commedia dell'arte (improvised masked comedy), which developed rapidly in 16th century Italy, became a popular figure in France as Polichinelle, and in England as Punchinello, eventually giving birth to the Punch Theater. Also during the Renaissance, the hand-operated puppet Braccino was born in Italy, and Italian puppeteers are thought to have been active throughout Europe, and their influence is strong. The old style of marionette, in which the head is suspended by a thick wire, which is still performed in Sicily, Italy, is also performed in Brussels and Liège in Belgium today. Germany also has a rich tradition of puppet theater, and it is well-known that Goethe's masterpiece, Faust, was based on the impression he had of a puppet show of the Faust legend that he saw as a child. The Faust play remains a classic of European puppet theater today, and the clown puppets Hans Wurst and Kasper that appear in the play are significant characters representing the people of the time, and the latter in particular is still a good friend of children in Germany and Austria today. Polichinaire, a popular French puppeteer, lost his throne to Guignol after the Revolution, and Guignol became internationally synonymous with hand puppets. Punch is still active in England today, and also traveled to the New World of America with immigrants. In Latin America, the influence of Spain and Portugal is thought to be the case, but the Brazilian Mamulengo has its own unique appeal with its ethnic characteristics. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] JapanThe doll that Oe Masafusa wrote about in the early 12th century document "Kairaishiki" as having been brought over from the continent is thought to be a stick-shaped puppet with a staff head. However, similarly shaped Oshirasama-like dolls could have existed in Japan before that time, and the Kohyo-mai dance, a ritual to pray for a good catch using stick puppet "kugutsu" at Hachiman Kohyo Shrine in Yoshitomi-cho, Chikujo-gun, Fukuoka Prefecture, and Kohyo Shrine in Nakatsu City, Oita Prefecture, was originally an event of the maritime faith of the "Amabe people," and is naturally thought to have been performed since ancient times. Puppet plays called "Ebisu Dance" or "Ebisukaki" (Ebisukaki), which also pray for a good catch and a good harvest, have been performed since ancient times in the lives of the common people, and the largest group of puppeteers was called the puppeteers of Nishinomiya. They were priests who lived in Sanjo (Sanjo, Sansho) belonging to Hirota Hachiman Shrine in Nishinomiya City, Hyogo Prefecture. Rites using puppets performed in various places, such as "Tenzushimai" in Kofu (Yamanashi Prefecture) and "Hinkoko Doll" in Mino (Gifu Prefecture), are puppet plays that existed before the formation of puppet theater, that is, puppet theatre. There are also "Sanemori Dolls" used to chase away insects in Tanushimaru Town, Kurume City, Fukuoka Prefecture. Puppet theater was established in Japan in the 16th century, during the Muromachi period, when the puppeteers of Nishinomiya, also known as Hyakudayu, combined spoken works such as "Juunidan-zoshi" (also known as "The Tale of Princess Joruri") with music played on the shamisen, which had been introduced from the Ryukyu Islands at that time, to create the musical theater known as Ningyo Joruri. However, Kadozuke and Daido puppet performances did not disappear after that, and Kadozuke, which featured dancing puppets of Ebisu, Sanbaso, and Daikoku, "Hakomawashi," in which puppets dance on a stage in a small box hanging from their necks, the parlor art of "Goban Ningyo," and "Tsunabi"-style Karakuri puppets set off by fireworks were performed in various places. Ningyo joruri was not only popular in Osaka and Edo, but also in Awaji Island and Awa (Tokushima Prefecture), where there were many puppet troupes. There were puppet troupes all over the country, including the Anori puppets in Mie Prefecture, the Kuroda puppets and Waseda puppets in Nagano Prefecture, and the Sagami puppets in Kanagawa Prefecture. On Sado Island in Niigata Prefecture, there is still a troupe that performs old joruri plays and the Ai-kyogen Noroma puppets, as well as the Bunya puppet troupe. In Kyushu, the Kitabaru puppets of Oita Prefecture once held great influence, but today there are successors to this style, such as the Ikari puppets and the Chiwata puppets. The "Saeki Lantern Doll" of Kameoka City, Kyoto Prefecture, the "Shittaka Doll" and "Shirokukushi Doll" of Saitama Prefecture are skewered dolls operated by one or two people and are still performed today. There are a variety of Karakuri dolls with unique manipulation techniques, such as the "Yame Fukushima Lantern Doll" of Yame City, Fukuoka Prefecture, which is controlled by a mechanism made of numerous sticks and strings, the "Gando Doll" of Annaka City, Gunma Prefecture, which is a string-operated Karakuri doll, and the "Tsunabi" of Obari and Takaoka in Tsukubamirai City, Ibaraki Prefecture, which is a unique remote-controlled doll that uses fireworks. "Kuruma Ningyo" is performed by the Nishikawa Koryu troupe in Hachioji, Tokyo, while the "Sarukura Ningyo" of Akita Prefecture, the "Tsugaru Ningyo" of Aomori Prefecture, and the "Yamanobe Ningyo" of Yamagata Prefecture are all hand-operated puppets, and the "Nishihata Ningyo" of Kochi Prefecture has invented its own unique pole puppet made from steel wire. In addition, the "Masuda Ningyo" of Tottori Prefecture conveys the Edo-style string puppetry, and the traditions of Japanese puppetry are extremely diverse and rich, and are thought to have greater cultural characteristics than those of other ethnic groups. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] Modern puppet theater
The first postwar International Puppet Theater Festival was held in Bucharest, Romania in 1958. Many national puppet theaters were founded in the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries, and puppet theater in Western countries also flourished rapidly. Many Asian countries, including those that have been liberated from colonial rule and achieved national independence, have revived their traditional ethnic puppet theater, and there are signs of modern puppet theater. Puppet theater is entering a new era of unprecedented development worldwide. In recent years, there has been a thriving approach to puppets as object theater. Various performances have been attempted that explore the relationship (intersection) between the aspect of inanimate objects and the aspect of puppets that have a sense of life. In Japan, before the war, in the late 1920s, many puppet theater companies were born, including the "Ningyo-za" by Kisaku Ito, Koreya Senda and others, and the "Ningyo Club" (now the Puppet Theater PUK) by Toji Kawajiri and others, and modern puppet theater flourished. However, due to the social system of the time and World War II, it came under heavy pressure and was forced into a period when it was dominated by Imperial Rule Assistance puppet theater. With Japan's defeat in the war, the situation changed dramatically and puppet theater became more and more active. With the re-establishment of PUK, more than 20 puppet theater companies and researchers, including the Japan Marionette Yuki-za, Seiki Butai, Ondori-za, Keio University Children's Culture Department and Kurumi-za, founded the Japanese Puppet Theater Council in 1946 (Showa 21) as Japan's first puppet theater movement organization. Since then, while undergoing changes due to the social transition after the war, it has spread rapidly throughout the country, and in 1949, the puppet theater "Kyo-gei" in Kyoto City, "Hitomi-za" in Kanagawa Prefecture, and "Kura-te" in Osaka Prefecture, which are all professional theater companies today, began their activities one after another. Yuki Magotaro also changed his name to Takeda Sannosuke and founded "Takeda Puppet Theater", and with this, Yuki Magosaburo's "Yuki-za" became the second Yuki-style string puppet theater company. Other shadow puppet theater companies include "Jeune Pantre", "Kakubutsu", "Minwa-za" and "Kakashi-za". Currently, there are more than 140 professional puppet theater companies active nationwide, while there are more than 2,000 amateur puppet theater companies, some of which operate through regional councils. In 1967, the Japanese Puppeteers Association was formed, and in the same year, Japan Unima (International Puppetry Federation) was launched as the Japanese center of Unima (International Puppetry Federation). UNIMA was founded in Prague, Czech Republic in 1929, and its activities were suspended during World War II, but it was re-established after the war and officially joined UNESCO in 1957. It currently has around 80 member countries around the world and is actively engaged in international activities. With the spread of television, modern puppetry is no longer limited to theatrical art, but also plays a major role in children's education. Furthermore, the characteristics of puppetry have been reexamined from a psychological point of view, and its usefulness is expanding today, with its application in the treatment and therapy of neuroses and psychiatric illnesses. [Yasushi Kawajiri and Genyo Fujiwara] "Puppet Shows from Around the World" by Ozawa Aikuni (1943, Keio Publishing)" ▽ "Puppet Shows in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" by Ozawa Aikuni (1944, Mita Bungaku Publishing Department)" ▽ "Japanese Puppet Shows" by Nagata Heikichi (1949, Kinseisha)" ▽ "The History of Puppet Shows" by G. Baty and L. Chavannes, translated by Ninomiya Fusa (1960, Hakusuisha, Que sais-je Bunko)" ▽ "Studies on the Establishment of Puppet Shows" by Kakuta Ichiro (1963, Asahi Shoten) ▽ "Japanese Puppet Shows: Puppet Show Yearbook" edited by Japan Unima (1975, Japan Unima)" ▽ "History of Japanese Children's Theater" by Tomita Hiroyuki (1976, Tokyo Shoseki) ▽ "Asian Puppet Shows" by Miyao Yoshiyoshi (1984, Sanichi Shobo) "Half a Century of Modern Puppet Theatre Creation - 55 Years of the Puk Puppet Theatre Company" edited by Kawajiri Yasushi (1984, Miraisha)" ▽ "Puppet Theatre of the World" by Nanko Jiro (1968, Sansaisha)" ▽ "Puppet Theatre" edited by the Society of Traditional Arts (1969, Gakugei Shorin)" ▽ "A Study of the History of the Development of Japanese Puppet Theatre" by Kawajiri Yasushi (1986, Bansei Shobo)" ▽ "New Puppet Theatre Selection 3: The History of Puppet Theatre" by E. Korenberg, translated by Oi Kazuo (1990, Bansei Shobo)" ▽ "Japan Unima edited: "'97 and '98 Japanese Puppet Theatre: Puppet Theatre Yearbook" (1999, Japan Unima) [References] | | | | |Shadow | | | | | | | | | puppet theatre| | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
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人形劇は、造形物体である人形を俳優（人形遣い）が操作し演技表現を行うのが特質で、人間劇、仮面劇とともに、演劇のもっとも基本的な形態における三分野の一つを構成する。 その発生は、万物が霊魂を有すると考えるアニミズム的思考やシャーマニズム的呪術(じゅじゅつ)をもとに、生産的諸行事や祭りのなかでさまざまな人形が舞わされてきたというところに求められよう。それらがやがて人形による演劇として形成されていった。人形劇は、人間劇に比べ「ことば」より「動き」による表現の比重が強く、美術的効果が大きな役割をもち、幻想性に富み、ときに怪奇的でさえあるが、幼児の心理にも容易にしかも強く働きかける特質がある。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 人形劇の分類
［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 棒人形棒人形は初原的形体の1本の棒自体が人形で、先端を頭とし、その下部を握って操作するもので、東北地方の「おしらさま」はその典型である。古く「杖頭傀儡(じょうとうくぐつ)」とよばれたものもこの形体で、西欧ではマロットmarotteとよばれた。その単純な構造を生かし、現代人形劇において優れた舞台がつくられることで、この形式への再認識がなされた。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 手遣い人形手遣い人形は、人形の内部に手を差し入れ、指や手首の運動で人形を操る形式で、片手遣い人形と両手遣い人形があり、指の用い方などその形体は多様である。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 片手遣い人形西欧、近東、アジア各地で広く行われる片手遣い人形は手袋式形体で、フランスではギニョールguignol、中国では布袋戯(プータイシー)とよばれる。わが国でも、後水尾(ごみずのお)天皇が愛玩(あいがん)したという「気楽坊(きらくぼう)」や、大分県中津市の古要(こひょう)神社に伝わる「小豆(あずき)童子」などは、人形の首(かしら)に指を差し込む形式である。しかし、日本各地に伝わる「袱紗(ふくさ)人形」「豆人形」「手人形」、また秋田県の「猿倉(さるくら)人形」をはじめとする伝統的手遣い人形は、首の下部の短い棒を人差し指と中指で挟む「はさみ式」の手遣い人形で、日本独自の形式といえる。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 両手遣い人形両手遣い人形は人形の内部に両手を差し込んで操作するが、その構造や操作方法にはいくつかの種類がある。元禄(げんろく)期（1688～1704）にはすでに人形の裾(すそ)または背部から両手を入れる形式があったが、内部の構造は不明で、おそらく今日「野呂間(のろま)人形」で用いられるものに近い形体で、「弓手(ゆんで)式」と考えられる。今日広く行われる人形の首の胴串(どぐし)を左手で操り、人形の両手を右手の指に差して操る形式は1933年（昭和8）以降のものである。近年、操者の片手の親指に人形の首をはめ、残る4本の指ともう一方の手先を衣装から出し人形の両手とする形式は旧チェコスロバキアで創案されたが、独特の効果があり、各国に広まっている。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 指人形1本または2本の指に小さな人形を差して操るものを指人形という。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 表情人形顔面を布やゴムなど軟質な材料でつくり、内部から手の運動で人形の表情を変化させる形式の表情人形も手遣い人形の部類に考えてよいだろう。またアメリカのJ・ヘンソンにより発展した、口のパクパク動く人形のマペットは短期間のうちに全世界に広まった。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 棒遣い人形棒遣いは人形を細い棒や針金などで操作する形式の総称である。下から操作するもの、後ろまたは上から操作するものなど形態や操作方法は多様。わが国ではこの操作棒を「差し金(さしがね)」とよぶが、竹串(たけぐし)が用いられることもあり、「串人形(くしにんぎょう)」はこの形式に入る。またインドネシア、中国その他の影絵芝居も操法的には棒遣い人形であり、チェコやベルギーには、人形の頭に針金をつけ、上から操る形体もある。後ろからの棒遣いは、新しい舞台表現である「黒の劇場」などにも応用される。近年は棒遣いが舞台、テレビを含め現代人形劇の主流をなす操法である。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 糸操り人形糸操り人形は通常、関節をもった人形の各部に糸をつけ、上から吊(つ)り下げて操作するもので、操者は吊り手（操作器）を操作しつつ、その吊り手に取り付けた何本かの糸さばきによって人形を動かす。糸の数は1本のものから20本を超えるものまである。吊り手は「手板」または「コントローラー」ともいわれ、トンボ型水平式や垂直型階層式のものなど多様にある。中国では古く懸糸傀儡(けんしかいらい)、提線傀儡(ていせんかいらい)などとよばれた。西欧ではマリオネットmarionetteといわれるが、同時にこれは人形劇の総称としても使われる。日本では江戸時代「南京操り(なんきんあやつり)」とよばれたが、南京玉、南京あやめなどきれいでかわいらしいものに南京のことばが使われる風習があり、この呼称から、中国からの渡来と断定することはできない。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 抱え遣い人形抱え遣いは手遣い人形の項で述べた元禄期から行われただろう両手遣いの構造がさらに発展し、棒遣いや糸によるからくりとも複合したもので、比較的大きな人形を抱えるように保持して操作する形式の総称である。一体の人形を3人で操作する人形浄瑠璃(じょうるり)（文楽(ぶんらく)式）の三人遣いの形式のほか、1人で遣うもの、2人で遣うもの、またその構造もさまざまなものがある。三人遣いは「主(おも)遣い」の操者が左手で人形の首を遣い、右手で人形の右手を遣い、他の1人が人形の左手を、もう1人が人形の両足を遣う。この形式は1734年（享保19）、当時の人形遣いの名人吉田文三郎(ぶんざぶろう)が創案したといわれている。これより先、他の方式による江戸式三人遣いが江戸孫四郎によって行われていた。 また、幕末から明治にかけて、それまで座敷芸としてあった「碁盤(ごばん)人形」を発展させ、轆轤(ろくろ)車に腰掛けて操者が人形を抱えながら操る方式が、「車人形(くるまにんぎょう)」として初代西川古柳(こりゅう)により創案された。同じころと思われるが、大分県中津市では、中腰で遣う「碁盤遣い」または「はさみ遣い」とよばれる方式の「北原(きたばる)人形」が生まれた。昭和に入って大阪では、操者が立ったままで、人形の首と自分の頭を糸で連動させ、自分の両手で人形の両手を操り、両膝(ひざ)に人形の両足を取り付けて遣う「乙女文楽(おとめぶんらく)」式一人遣いが生まれたが、腕金式（林二木(にぼく)創案）と胴金式（桐竹(きりたけ)門造創案）の2種がある。文楽の端役のツメ人形も1人で遣う抱え遣いで、西欧で腹話術に使われる人形もほぼ同形体。近年は、乙女文楽と車人形を複合した「肩金式車人形」（川尻泰司(かわじりたいじ)創案）などもある。これらの方式はヨーロッパでもとり入れられ、多様な形に変化して使われている。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ その他人形の内部に機械仕掛けの装置を仕組み、ねじやおもり、水、砂などの動力、あるいは人力で糸や棒を使って操作する「からくり人形」にもさまざまな形式がある。また、団扇(うちわ)形の平面な人形の両面に絵を描いて操作する「立絵(たちえ)式人形」（ペープサートともよばれる）、卓上に人形を置いて直接手で持って操作する「テーブル人形劇」、劇場の大型化に伴い2メートル以上もある巨大人形の内部に操者が入ってからくりを応用して操作する「からくり遣い」、コンピュータを応用して操作する人形など、今日ますます多様化の傾向にある。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 演出技法上の形式前述したのは、人形の形体とその操作方法を主とした分類であるが、以下は、それらに加えての演出技法上の特殊な形式である。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 影絵人形劇影絵人形劇は、スクリーンを張り後方に光源を置き、獣皮や厚紙でつくった透(すかし)彫りの平面的人形を棒遣いで演じ、その影をスクリーンに投影して見せる方式で、インドネシアに伝承する「ワヤン・クリ」が有名である。西欧ではシャドーパペットshadow puppetとよばれる。この様式は古くからインド、中国はじめアジア各地で行われたが、17世紀に中国からフランスに伝わり、ヨーロッパに広がった。日本では影絵はあまり発達せず、そのかわり「ふろ」とよばれる幻灯機数台を使い一つの画面に複合した映像を動かして見せる「写し絵」が発達した。近年、日本の影絵人形劇はこの手法を応用し、大型スクリーンに極彩色の影絵人形劇を上演する。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 黒の劇場黒の劇場という手法は、1950年代末期に旧チェコスロバキアで開発された演出技法で、もっとも新しい舞台表現の技法として盛んに使われる。ブラック・シアターblack theatreともよばれる。これは近年発達した舞台照明技術を応用して行われるもので、黒バックの前で制御された光の空間に人形または物体のみを浮かび上がらせて操作する方法と、紫外線の不可視光線で蛍光塗（染）料による人形を光らせて見せる手法と2種類あり、いずれも操者は黒衣(くろご)を着用し観客には見えない。人形は舞台空間を現滅自在に動き、そのみごとな幻想的表現は他の舞台芸術全般にも広まりつつある。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 出遣い文楽では操者が黒い頭巾(ずきん)をとり、顔を見せて操ることを出遣いというが、現代人形劇においては、近年になって新しい演出技法として行われるようになった。従来の人形劇では、操者が衝立(ついたて)の陰に隠れるなど、なるべく姿を見せない人形だけの世界を目ざしていたが、現在では積極的に舞台空間に操者と人形が同時に存在することによる、さまざまな可能性が試されている。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 人形劇の歴史世界の諸民族はどのような形であれ、人形劇をもっているといっても過言ではない。インド、中国、エジプト、ギリシアには古代から人形劇に関する文献がある。近代に入っては、R・ピシェルの『人形芝居の故郷』（1900）、C・マニアンの『ヨーロッパにおける人形劇の歴史』（1852）などの著書もあり、またG・バティ、R・シャバンス共著の『人形劇の歴史』（1959）、南江二郎（治郎）の『世界偶人劇史』（1933）などもあるが、いずれもいまだ人形劇の歴史について定説といいうるものはない。その発生起源を特定の地域や民族についてのみ求めるよりは、むしろ人類文化の発展過程で多元的に発生したものが、それぞれの生産的、生活的諸行事や宗教との関係のなかでしだいに発達し、諸民族間の交易やときには侵略をも通じて伝播(でんぱ)し融合しあうなかで、各民族の特質をもった人形劇が形成されてきたものと考えるのが至当であろう。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 東洋中国においては漢の時代に西域(せいいき)から傀儡(かいらい)が伝わったといわれるが、宋(そう)の時代にはすでに人形劇が盛んに行われ、杖頭傀儡、懸糸傀儡、薬発傀儡、水傀儡、肉傀儡など各種のものがあったという記述がある。明(みん)や清(しん)の時代に入ると手遣いの布袋戯(プータイシー)や棒遣いの形式が現れ、布袋戯は清朝に福建から台湾に伝わり独自の発展をみた。 また中国で皮影戯(ひえいぎ)とよばれた影絵人形劇は、インド、インドネシア、タイ、マレーシア、ビルマ（ミャンマー）など東南アジア一帯に古くから行われ、インド神話の『ラーマーヤナ』『マハーバーラタ』などが多く上演される。とくに、インドネシアのジャワとバリの「ワヤン・クリ」はガムラン音楽と相まって優れた舞台効果をあげている。人形は国によってロバ、ウシ、スイギュウなどの皮でつくられる。トルコの影絵の「カラギョーズ」はラクダの皮でつくられ、エジプトから伝わったといわれるが、現在ではギリシアでも「カラギョーシス」として行われている。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 西欧ヨーロッパの人形劇については紀元1世紀ごろすでにギリシア全土に普及していたともいわれ、ソクラテスやアリストテレスの人形劇に関する記述もあるが、詳細はわからない。キリスト教の強い支配を受けた中世には、大道芸人たちと修道院における禁令を犯す上演によって人形劇は命脈を保ち、ルネサンスを迎えて、ようやくその本来の活力ある姿を現す。16世紀イタリアで急速な発展をみせたコメディア・デラルテ（即興仮面喜劇）の登場人物の1人であるプルチネッラは、フランスではポリシネールとなって活躍、イギリスに渡ってはパンチネロとなり、やがてパンチ劇を生む。同じくルネサンスにはイタリアに手遣い人形のブラッチーノが生まれ、イタリアの人形劇芸人たちはヨーロッパ全土に活躍したと思われ、その影響は強い。今日もイタリアのシチリア島で上演される、頭を太い針金で吊(つ)り下げた古い型のマリオネットの形式は、ベルギーのブリュッセルやリエージュでも行われている。 ドイツも人形劇の伝統は豊かで、ゲーテの代表作『ファウスト』は、彼が幼少のころ見たファウスト伝説の人形劇の印象をもとにしたことは有名な話である。ファウスト劇は今日もヨーロッパ人形劇の古典で、その劇中に登場する道化人形ハンスウルストやカスペルは当時の民衆を代表するキャラクターとして大きな意味をもち、ことに後者は今日もドイツ、オーストリアで子供たちのよき友である。フランスの人形劇の人気者であったポリシネールは、大革命後ギニョールにその王座を奪われ、ギニョールは国際的に手遣い人形の代名詞ともなった。パンチは今日もなおイギリスで活躍しているだけでなく、移民とともに新大陸アメリカに渡って活躍した。中南米ではスペイン、ポルトガルの影響も考えられるが、ブラジルのマムレンゴは民族的特質をもった独自のおもしろさをもっている。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 日本12世紀初期の文献『傀儡子記(かいらいしき)』で大江匡房(まさふさ)が大陸から渡来したと記している人形は、棒状の杖頭傀儡と思われる。しかし、同じような形体のおしらさま的人形はそれ以前からもわが国に存在しえたであろうし、福岡県築上(ちくじょう)郡吉富(よしとみ)町の八幡古表(はちまんこひょう)神社、大分県中津市の古要(こひょう)神社に伝わる古表舞とよばれる棒人形構造の「傀儡子(くぐつ)」による大漁祈願の祭祀(さいし)は、本来「あまべの民」の海洋信仰の行事であり、当然古くから行われたものと思われる。同じ大漁・豊作を祈願する「えびす舞」または「えびすかき（夷舁）」とよばれる人形戯(にんぎょうぎ)は民衆の生活のなかで古くから行われ、その人形遣いたちのもっとも大きな集団は、西の宮の傀儡子といわれた。彼らはいまの兵庫県西宮(にしのみや)市の広田八幡宮に属する産所(さんじょ)（散所、算所）に住む祝詞(のりと)職であった。甲府（山梨県）の「天津司舞(てんづしまい)」、美濃(みの)（岐阜県）の「ひんここ人形」など各地で行われる人形による祭祀は、人形による演劇、つまり人形劇が形成される以前の人形戯である。ほかに福岡県の久留米(くるめ)市田主丸(たぬしまる)町の虫追いに使われる「実盛(さねもり)人形」などもある。 日本で人形劇が成立するのは16世紀の室町期で、百太夫(ひゃくだゆう)ともよばれた西の宮の人形遣いたちが『十二段草子』（別名『浄瑠璃姫(じょうるりひめ)物語』）などの語物を、そのころ琉球(りゅうきゅう)から伝わった三味線による音曲と結び、人形浄瑠璃という音楽劇を創造したころからと考えるのが至当であろう。しかしその後も門付(かどづけ)や大道の人形芸がなくなったわけではなく、夷(えびす)や三番叟(さんばそう)、大黒(だいこく)の人形を舞わす門付や、首にかけた小箱を舞台に人形を舞わす「箱回し」、座敷芸の「碁盤(ごばん)人形」、花火を仕掛けた「綱火(つなび)」式からくり人形などが各地で行われた。人形浄瑠璃も大坂や江戸のみでなく、淡路島、阿波(あわ)（徳島県）のものはとくに有名で多くの人形座があり、三重県の「安乗(あのり)人形」や長野県の「黒田人形」「早稲田(わせだ)人形」、神奈川県の「相模(さがみ)人形」はじめ各地に人形座があった。新潟県の佐渡には今日も、古浄瑠璃による演目や、その間(あい)狂言である「野呂間(のろま)人形」を上演する座があり、ほかに「文弥(ぶんや)人形」の座もある。九州では、大分県の「北原(きたばる)人形」がかつては大きな力をもっていたが、いまはその流れをくむ「伊加利(いかり)人形」「千綿(ちわた)人形」などがある。 京都府亀岡市の「佐伯灯籠人形(さえきとうろうにんぎょう)」、埼玉県の「尻高(しったか)人形」「白久串(しろくくし)人形」などは1人または2人で遣う串人形で、今日も上演されている。独特なからくり的操法をもつものとしては、福岡県八女(やめ)市の「八女福島灯籠人形」は多数の棒と糸のからくりで操られ、群馬県安中(あんなか)市には糸操り的からくりの「龕灯(がんどう)人形」があり、茨城県つくばみらい市の小張(おばり)と高岡に伝わる「綱火」は、花火を使用する独特の遠隔操作によるもので、からくり的人形も多様である。「車(くるま)人形」は東京都八王子市の西川古柳(こりゅう)一座などで行われ、秋田県の「猿倉(さるくら)人形」、青森県の「津軽(つがる)人形」、山形県の「山辺(やまのべ)人形」などはいずれも手遣い人形で、高知県の「西畑(さいばた)人形」は独自の鋼鉄線による棒遣い人形を編み出した。このほか、鳥取県の「益田(ますだ)人形」はかつての江戸系の糸操りを伝えるなど、日本の人形劇の伝統は実に多様豊富で、他の諸民族に比べ大きな文化的特質をもつものと考えられる。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 現代人形劇
戦後第1回の国際人形劇フェスティバルがルーマニアのブクレシュティ（ブカレスト）で1958年に開催された。旧ソ連および東欧圏の諸国で、それぞれ多くの国立人形劇場が創立されたのをはじめ、欧米各国の人形劇も急速な活況を呈し、植民地から解放されて民族独立を成し遂げたアジアをはじめ多くの国ではそれぞれの民族的伝統人形劇が復活し、現代人形劇への胎動がみられ、世界的に人形劇はかつてみない新たな発展期を迎えている。近年では物体劇としての人形へのアプローチが盛んに行われている。命のない物体としての側面と、命を感じる人形の関係（交錯）を追求するさまざまな舞台が試みられている。 日本においては戦前の1920年代末期に、伊藤熹朔(きさく)、千田是也(これや)らの「人形座」、川尻東次らの「人形クラブ」（現人形劇団プーク）をはじめとする多くの人形劇団が生まれ、現代人形劇の開花期を呈したが、当時の社会体制と第二次大戦により大きな圧迫を受け、一時は大政翼賛人形劇一色に追い込まれた。敗戦とともに情況は一変し、沸き上がる勢いで人形劇は活発化した。プークの再建、日本マリオネット結城(ゆうき)座、青旗(せいき)舞台、おんどり座、慶応大学児童文化部、胡桃(くるみ)座など20以上の人形劇団と研究家により、1946年（昭和21）には日本で初めての人形劇の運動組織として日本人形劇協議会が設立された。以来、戦後の社会的変遷による変化を伴いつつも急速な勢いで全国的普及は進み、1949年には今日職業的専門劇団として活動する京都市の人形劇団「京芸」、神奈川県の「ひとみ座」、大阪府の「人形劇団クラルテ」が相次いで活動を開始した。また、結城孫太郎が竹田三之助と改名し「竹田人形座」をおこし、ここに結城系糸操りは結城孫三郎の「結城座」と2座になった。このほか影絵人形劇では「ジュヌ・パントル」「角笛」「みんわ座」「かかし座」などがある。現在、全国で活動する職業人形劇団は140を超え、一方2000を超えるアマチュア人形劇団があり、地域協議体をもって活動するものもある。1967年には日本人形劇人協会が結成され、同年ウニマ（国際人形劇連盟）の日本センターとして日本ウニマが発足した。 ウニマは1929年にチェコのプラハで創立され、第二次大戦で活動が中断したが、戦後再建され、1957年にはユネスコに正式参加した。現在は世界に約80か国の加盟国をもち、活発な国際活動を展開している。テレビの普及も伴って現代人形劇は演劇芸術としてのみにとどまらず、児童の教育にも大きな役割を果たし、また人形劇のもつ特質が心理学的見地から見直され、今日では神経症および精神病の診療、療法（セラピー）にも応用されるなど、その効用性が広がりつつある。 ［川尻泰司・藤原玄洋］ 『小沢愛圀著『世界各国の人形劇』（1943・慶応出版社）』▽『小沢愛圀著『大東亜共栄圏の人形劇』（1944・三田文学出版部）』▽『永田衡吉著『日本の人形芝居』（1949・錦正社）』▽『G・バティ、L・シャヴァンス著、二宮フサ訳『人形劇の歴史』（1960・白水社・文庫クセジュ）』▽『角田一郎著『人形劇成立に関する研究』（1963・旭屋書店）』▽『日本ウニマ編『日本の人形劇 人形劇年鑑』（1975・日本ウニマ）』▽『冨田博之著『日本児童演劇史』（1976・東京書籍）』▽『宮尾慈良著『アジアの人形劇』（1984・三一書房）』▽『川尻泰司編著『現代人形劇創造の半世紀――人形劇団プーク55年の歩み』（1984・未来社）』▽『南江治郎著『世界の人形劇』（1968・三彩社）』▽『伝統芸術の会編『人形芝居』（1969・学芸書林）』▽『川尻泰司著『日本人形劇発達史・考』（1986・晩成書房）』▽『E・コーレンベルク著、大井数雄訳『新人形劇選書3 人形劇の歴史』（1990・晩成書房）』▽『日本ウニマ編『'97・'98日本の人形劇 人形劇年鑑』（1999・日本ウニマ）』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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