Bunraku puppet theatre

Japanese: 人形浄瑠璃 - にんぎょうじょうるり

Ningyo Joruri is generally a general term for puppet theater performed to narration of Joruri, but in the narrow sense it refers to puppet theater using Gidayu (a traditional Japanese chant) and a three-man puppetry style, and today refers to Bunraku, the only specialized theater company. In the Edo period, it was called Ayatsuri Joruri or Maneuvering Theater. Bunraku can be said to be one of the most refined and accomplished performing arts among the many puppet theaters in the world. Ningyo Joruri and Kabuki have influenced and competed with each other over their 400-year history.

[Shoichi Yamada]

history

From the origins to the ancient Joruri period

When one looks into the origins of puppet theater in Japan, two streams are assumed: ancient religious and magical puppets, and performing arts puppets thought to have been introduced from the continent, but documents show that the art of puppet-turning existed at least as early as the Nara period. In the mid-11th century, during the late Heian period, puppet-turning became one of the professions of a wandering group formed by fugitives, and this group was called "kugutsu." In the Kamakura period, puppet groups began to settle around shrines and temples or in post stations along the roads, and in the Muromachi period, groups performing Sarugaku and Kowaka dances also appeared, and among them, a group based at Hyakudayu Shrine, a branch shrine of Nishinomiya Ebisu Shrine (Hyogo Prefecture), was particularly influential and traveled around the country calling themselves "Ebisukaki" (Ebisumawashi). This Ebisukaki remained until recent years, and in the spring, they would distribute Miei and other items to bless houses and make Ebisu dolls dance.

Meanwhile, Japan has had an ancient tradition of oral narration of plotted stories called "katarimono," which began with "Heikyoku." Heikyoku recited the Tale of the Heike accompanied by the music of the biwa, and was the specialty of biwa hoshi (biwa priests). However, with the emergence of musical pieces such as Noh, Kōjaku, and Sekkyōbushi, Heikyoku fell out of fashion, and various reforms were made to it, and the variety of stories expanded. Among these, "Jūnidan-sōshi" (The Tale of Princess Jōruri) became popular, and its melody came to be called Jōruri-bushi and was adapted to other lyrics. Early joruri continued to be accompanied by the biwa or was simply narrated to a fan beat, but around the Eiroku period (1558-1570), the shamisen, an improved version of the shamisen, came to be used for accompaniment, and the musical styles took a major leap forward, establishing joruri as the music of a new era. Around the Bunroku and Keicho eras (1592-1615), puppet theater was born when joruri and ikaku were combined, but it is not clear when it began; some say it was started by Menukiya Chozaburo, a disciple of Sawazumi Kengyo, who is said to have been the first to use the shamisen in joruri, and Hikita Awaji no Jo, an ikaku of Nishinomiya, or that the joruri narrator was Kenmotsu Jirobei, a disciple of Takino Koto. Riding the trend of the times, puppet theater became very popular, and from the end of the Keicho era to around Genna (1615-1624), performances began to be held not only in Kyoto but also in Edo and other parts of the country. However, the stage was a crude tent, the puppets could only perform simple movements by a single puppeteer, the Joruri puppetry still had monotonous melodies, and the stories were simple, such as tales of the miraculous powers of gods and Buddhas.

As Joruri became popular, the number of performers increased, and many of them established their own schools, each with their own ingenuity, and began to compete in the art. Sugiyama Tangonojo came from Kyoto to Edo towards the end of the Keicho era, and held the first Joruri performance in Edo in 1615 (Genwa 1). In contrast to the gentle style of the Sugiyama school, Satsuma Joun, a disciple of Sawazumi Kengyo, was a representative of the hard-line school, and came to Edo around the Kan'ei era (1624-1644). His bold and heroic style of storytelling suited the tastes of the Edo people, and he became very popular, and masters such as Sakurai Izumidayu (Tamba no Shojo), the originator of Kinpira-bushi, and Toraya Gendayu emerged from his school. Meanwhile, in Kamigata, after the Great Fire of Meireki (1657), Toraya Gendayu came to Tokyo with his disciple Kitayu and performed at Shijo-gawara, which was well received, and from Gendayu's pupil came the master Inoue Harima no Jo. Harima no Jo inherited his master's specialty in martial arts pieces, but he also developed an ingenious approach to Joruri, becoming skilled in "urei" (sorrow) (emotional pieces), and created the Harima-bushi style, which led to popular performances of puppet shows at Dotonbori in Osaka. At that time in Osaka, Yamamoto Kakudayu (Tosa no Jo), a performer of the Kakudayu style that emphasized the "pleasure," competed by performing with puppets that featured ingenious tricks such as Nanking string puppetry, water tricks, and sleight of hand.

At the same time in Kyoto, Uji Kadayu, a native of Kishu, created a popular school based on Noh songs (Kadayu-bushi, Kaga-bushi), but in 1677 (Enpo 5), he strengthened his troupe by welcoming Shimizu Ridayu, a disciple of Harima-no-jo from Osaka, as a waki, and at the end of the same year, he was given the title of Zuryo (a title that was also a source of income for imperial families and nobles), and took the name Uji Kaga-no-jo. Soon after, a rift arose between Ridayu and Kaga-no-jo, and he traveled to the western part of Japan to further his training, and in 1684 (Jokyo 1), he changed his name to Takemoto Gidayu and built the Takemoto-za turret in Dotonbori, Osaka. Gidayu combined the best of each school of Joruri up to that point, added his own ideas, and gained such masters as Chikamatsu Monzaemon as composer, Takezawa Gon'emon as shamisen player, and Tatsumatsu Hachirobei as puppeteer, monopolizing the popularity of Osaka. Eventually, other schools of Joruri gradually declined, and "Joruri" came to mean "Gidayu-bushi." Therefore, all the schools of Joruri up until the founding of the Takemotoza are collectively called "Old Joruri."

[Shoichi Yamada]

The completion of Gidayu and the Chikuho period

Takemoto Gidayu named the Joruri he created "To-ryu" or "Shin-joruri," but it was clearly a departure from the various schools of Joruri that preceded it artistically. It basically combined the robust tone of Inoue Harimajo and the delicate phrasing of Uji Kagajo, but in addition to the melodies of the various schools of Joruri, it also incorporated Noh plays, Kyogen short songs, Heikyoku, and Setsugekka, making it a culmination of the music of the time. Moreover, with the arrival of the unparalleled master of plays, Chikamatsu Monzaemon, not only did the content of the plays dramatically improve as literature, but they also developed from the traditional monotonous tales of divine and Buddhist miracles and heroic tales to splendid romances that explored the subtleties of human feelings, and furthermore, the creation of "sewamono" (domestic dramas) beginning with "Sonezaki Shinju" brought the plays even closer to the audience. The five-part structure of historical plays also became established around this time. It is said that this was modeled after the five-part structure of Noh theatre, but in the case of domestic plays, the stories are short and simple, so they are usually written in three volumes (upper, middle and lower) or two volumes (upper and lower).

On the other hand, puppets did not progress much from the art of the puppeteer, being small and operated with one hand, and the stage was simply performed by holding the puppet up from behind a curtain, but eventually the puppets began to be decorated according to the scene, and performances using real water and hanging mountains and mechanisms appeared. Yamamoto Hida no Jo invented the tezuma puppet, and created a "insertion type" where the puppeteer puts his hand in from the back and operates the mechanism with a pull plug, which was the origin of the mechanisms of later puppets, but Tatsumatsu Hachirobei and others used the "thrust type" where the puppeteer puts his hand in from the hem of the puppet, and in any case, they did not completely move away from being operated by one person.

Takemoto Gidayu was appointed as Chikugo no Jo (chikugo no jo) Fujiwara no Hironori in 1701 (Genroku 14) and his fame and skill grew. Two years later, in 1703, Takemoto Uneme, the leading disciple renowned for her beautiful voice, became independent, taking the name Toyotake Wakadayu, and founded the Toyotake-za in Dotonbori, the same area as the Takemoto-za. The composer was Kino Kaion, a well-known scholar and haiku poet and the younger brother of the kyoka poet Taiya Teiryu, who was invited to compete with Chikamatsu, and they successfully staged many masterpieces on the same subject, such as "Keisei Sandogasa" (The Courtesan's Three-Cornered Hat) in response to "Meido no Hikyaku" and "Shinju Futatsu Haraboshi" (Love Suicides in the Evening of the Gods). The Takemoto and Toyotake troupes competed against each other, further increasing the popularity of Ningyo Joruri and showing rapid growth in the arts. From this point on, until the Toyotake troupe fell into decline in 1765 (Meiwa 2) and the Takemoto troupe fell into decline the following year in 1767, the golden age of puppet Joruri lasted for about 60 years, and it was said that "Kabuki was as if it did not exist," and it is commonly known as the "Takemoto-Toyotomi era." After Gidayu's death in 1714, many of the Takemoto-za members who were dissatisfied with his decision to appoint his disciple Masatayu as his successor, as per his will, moved to the Toyotake-za one after another. In this difficult situation, Chikamatsu wrote "Kokusenya Kassen" (The Battle of Kokusenya), which was performed for 17 months to unprecedented audiences. Furthermore, even after Chikamatsu's death in 1724, he released a series of collaborative works with Takeda Izumo I, Bunkodo, and Hasegawa Senshi, and Masatayu took the name Gidayu II in 1734 (Kyoho 19), received the title of Kazusa Shojo the following year, and then received the title of Harima Shojo again in 1737 (Genbun 2), opening up new horizons in storytelling. The first Yoshida Bunzaburo and others also worked hard to improve the puppets, incorporating sleight of hand techniques to create movements for the eyes, mouth, eyebrows and limbs of the puppet's head, and finally came up with the idea of a three-man puppeteer for the role of Yakanbei in "Ashiyadoman Ouchi Kagami" in 1734, which more or less established the form of puppet theater we know today. For Gidayubushi as well, excellent tayu emerged from both troupes, and each troupe maintained its own original storytelling style, developing a distinct style and displaying its own unique characteristics. Based on the position of the two troupes, the Takemoto-za's down-to-earth and solid storytelling is called "Nishifu" and the Toyotake-za's splendid and lustrous storytelling is called "Tofu."

Then, during the Enkyo era (1744-1748), Harima Shojo passed away and Wakatayu, the founder of the Toyotake troupe who had received the title of Echizen Shojo, also retired, and both the Taketoyo troupes entered a new period of activity. In particular, at the Takemotoza, the second head of the troupe, Takeda Izumo, welcomed the up-and-coming playwright Namiki Sosuke (Senryu) from the Toyotakeza and, in collaboration with Miyoshi Shoraku and others, performed one masterpiece after another of Joruri, such as "Natsumatsuri Naniwa Kagami," "Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami," "Yoshitsune Senbonzakura," and "Kanadehon Chushingura," bringing about the heyday of the troupe's history. However, as the development of puppets allowed for freer movement, the content of Joruri also became more focused on appearance, and Kabuki, overwhelmed by the puppetry, was quick to adopt and perform popular Joruri kyogen plays, seizing the opportunity to recover from its decline. This combined to cause a gradual decline in the popularity of Ningyo Joruri. The Takemotoza performed masterpieces such as "Oshu Adachigahara" and "Honcho Nijushikou" with Chikamatsu Hanji as the main composer, but they struggled commercially, and the Toyotakeza also fell into decline immediately after its founder and head of the troupe, Echizen Shojo, died at the advanced age of 84 in 1764 (Meiwa 1). Both troupes fell into decline one after the other, bringing the Takemoto era to an end. After this, Toyotake-za was revived in 1767 by Toyotake Konokichi near Kitahorie City, and Takemoto-za also attempted to revive in Dotonbori. They enjoyed a brief hit with "Imoseyama Onna Teikin" (1771), but it did not last long.

[Shoichi Yamada]

From the founding of the Bunraku Theatre to the opening of the National Bunraku Theatre

After the fall of the Taketoyo and Taketoyo theaters, many skilled performers emerged, but there were no talented writers, and although new works were performed, no masterpieces were born. Rather, there were more revivals of past masterpieces, and both Joruri and puppetry entered an era of refinement in which the legacy of their predecessors was further polished. The popularity of Joruri spread throughout the country, and during the Tenmei period (1781-1789), new works were performed in Edo, and works such as "Meiboku Sendaihagi" and "Kagamiyama Kokyo no Nishikie" remain to this day. In Osaka, the number of small puppet theaters in temple and shrine precincts and at comedy halls increased, but during the Kansei period (1789-1801), Uemura Bunrakuken, a native of Awaji, got involved in running a Joruri theater. In 1811 (Bunkaku 8), the second Bunrakuken opened a puppet show in the grounds of Inari Shrine in Bakuro-cho, Osaka, and the fourth Bunraku-o moved it to Matsushima in 1872 (Meiji 5) and named it the Bunraku-za. In response to this, the Hikoroku-za was established in the Inari shrine grounds in 1884, and the Bunraku-za was also moved to the grounds of Goryo Shrine in Hirano-cho. The rivalry between the Bunraku and Hikoroku troupes reminded me of the re-enactment of the Taketoyo era, and the tayus included Takemoto Koshiji Tayu II (Settsu Daijo), Takemoto Tsutayu II, and Takemoto Osumi Tayu III, shamisen players Toyosawa Danpei II, Toyosawa Hirosuke V and VI, and puppeteers Yoshida Tamazo I, Yoshida Tamasuke I, and Kiritake Monjuro I. They competed in the arts and built a golden age for puppet theater in the Meiji period. However, both troupes struggled financially, with the Hikoroku troupe going bankrupt in 1893, and the Bunraku troupe being transferred from the Uemura family to Shochiku in 1909 (Meiji 42). Hikoroku-style performers continued to compete with the Bunrakuza through their successive Inari-za, Meiraku-za, and Horie-za theaters, but in 1914 (Taisho 3), when the Chikamatsu-za theater at Minamizume, Sanoyabashi, was closed, it was merged into the Bunrakuza theater. The Bunrakuza theater then became the only theater specializing in Bunraku puppet theater, and the name "Bunraku" became synonymous with Bunraku puppet theater.

In the Taisho period, many famous performances were held by narrators such as Koshijidayu III, Tsudayu III, Takemoto Tosatayu VI, Toyotake Kotsubodayu II (Yamashiro no Shojo), shamisen players such as Tsuruzawa Seiroku III, Toyosawa Hirosuke VI, Nozawa Kichibei VII, Tsuruzawa Dohachi I, Tsuruzawa Tomojiro VI, and puppeteers such as Yoshida Eiza I and Yoshida Bungoro. However, in 1926 (Taisho 15), the Goryo Bunrakuza theater burned down and was soon relocated to Yotsubashi, but the economy was in a bad state in the early Showa period and the country entered World War II, and the Yotsubashi Bunrakuza theater was also damaged by the war.

After the war, the Bunrakuza was rebuilt in Yotsubashi by Shochiku soon after. However, influenced by the rapidly growing labor union movement at the time, the group finally split into union and non-union factions in May 1948 (Showa 23). The union faction, centered around Kiritake Monjuro II, Toyotake Rodayu III (Toyotake Wakadayu 10th), Nozawa Kizaemon II and others, formed the Mitsuwa-kai, left Shochiku and performed independently, while the non-union faction, centered around Toyotake Yamashiro Shojo, Tsurusawa Seiroku IV, Yoshida Bungoro (Naniwa no Jo) and others, called themselves the Chinami faction, continued to perform with the Yotsubashi Bunrakuza as their base as before, under Shochiku's capital. The split into two groups left the performers extremely thin, and both groups' box office results were poor. In an attempt to make a comeback, Shochiku relocated the Bunraku theater from Yotsubashi to its birthplace of Dotonbori in 1956, and also tried new works in genres that had never been performed before, such as "Lady Chocho," "Hamlet," and "Lady Tsubaki." During this time, in February 1955, Takemoto Sumitayū VI, Toyotake Yamashiro Shōjō, Takemoto Tsunatayū VIII, and Tsuruzawa Seiroku IV were recognized as the first wave of holders of Important Intangible Cultural Properties (Living National Treasures), and in May of the same year, both Bunraku groups were designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties as "Ningyo Joruri Bunraku," which opened the way for the national treasury to cover the costs of training performers and public performances. However, in 1962, Shochiku decided to abandon management of Bunraku (Inkai group). As a result, the Bunraku Association, a foundation established with subsidies from the national government, Osaka Prefecture, Osaka City, and the Broadcasting Culture Foundation (originally NHK), was launched in January 1963, and at the same time the Inkai and Sanwakai factions merged, with the first performance being held at the Dotonbori Bunrakuza in April of the same year. However, as the Bunrakuza building remained owned by Shochiku as before, it was soon renamed the Asahiza, and Bunraku lost its own theater.

In 1966, the National Theatre opened in Hayabusa-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo. Its small theatre (seats 630) was ideally designed for Bunraku performances, and regular Bunraku performances were held four times a year, successfully cultivating a younger audience and training successors. In addition, Bunraku's overseas performances in Europe and the US were well-received beyond expectations, and the reputation of Bunraku as the world's best puppet theatre was growing. This led to growing calls among those involved to build a theatre dedicated to Bunraku in Osaka, where the theatre is based. This wish was realised in March 1984 when the National Theatre Bunraku Theatre (commonly known as the National Bunraku Theatre, seating 753) opened in Nipponbashi, Chuo-ku, Osaka. The main centre for training successors was also moved here, and Bunraku entered a new era, with the aim of regaining its former glory.

The Living National Treasures recognized after the four in 1955 are Toyotake Wakatayu 10th, Takemoto Koshijidayu 4th, Takemoto Tsudayu 4th, and Takemoto Sumidayu 7th in the field of shamisen, and Tsuruzawa Kanji 6th, Nozawa Matsunosuke, Nozawa Kizaemon 2nd, Takezawa Yashichi 10th, Tsuruzawa Enza 5th, Nozawa Kinshi 4th, and Takezawa Danroku 8th (later Tsuruzawa Kanji 7th) in the field of shamisen.

[Shoichi Yamada]

Bunraku puppeteer and shamisen

From the very beginning of Ningyo Joruri, the tayu have held the initiative. This is because, no matter how skilled the puppeteer, it is all for nothing if the tayu does not fully convey the meaning of the piece and bring it to life. Therefore, the leader of a troupe was always the leading tayu, who held absolute authority. Their name was written under the turret of the theater, so they were called "yagurashita," and also "monshita," because on the ranking list their name was written under the coat of arms of the theater (for various reasons, the term "yagurashita" has disappeared since Toyotake Yamashiro Shojo).

Originally, one tayu was responsible for one act, but later, each act was shared by two or three people. In this case, the first part is called kuchi, the next is naka or tsugi, and the final part is kiri. Kiri is the most important part and is called kiriba, while kuchi, naka and next are called haba. Even among haba, those that are different from kiriba and independent are called tatehaba. In addition, for short haba, the tayu and shamisen sometimes play behind a screen without being seen by the audience, which is called "misuuchi," but the rule is that they usually wear kataginu (shoulder garments) and "dekatari." Because the tayu recites one act alone, it is important to accurately express not only the personalities of the characters but also the scenery of the stage, and musical beauty takes precedence. This also means that Joruri performance is not "sung" but "narrated". However, in scenes with many dance elements such as Michiyuki, multiple tayu and shamisen players may play together on the stage to enhance the musical effect, and there are also "kakeai" (talking) sessions in which multiple tayu take turns speaking. The scale of Gidayubushi is lower than other Japanese music for the purpose of "narrating", and the need for powerful vocalization means that tayu wear a thick belly band, place a sandbag on their lower abdomen, and speak from the depths of their stomachs. However, even if the primary purpose is to tell the story of the play, it is natural that each performer will have a different interpretation and physical talent, which is where the tayu's unique style of storytelling comes from.

Takemoto Gidayu had a loud voice, but was said to have reached an exquisite level where he could sing while reciting texts, and speak while singing, and was rather solemn in style. In contrast, Toyotake Wakadayu had a naturally beautiful voice and a flamboyant, unconventional style of performance with a gorgeous intonation and rich expression, which was a stark contrast. These west wind and east wind represent the two sides of Gidayu-bushi, but later, individual styles came to be respected. This is called "style" and is generally named after the tayu who first performed it, but in particular when later tayu left behind excellent techniques, that style may be passed down, and sometimes only certain parts may be performed in a different style. Currently, the work that most clearly shows the style of the tayu is the third act, "Yama no Dan," of "Imoseyama," where Seyama is performed in the solemn, solemn style of the west Somedayu and Imoyama is performed in the bright, flamboyant style of the east Shundayu, which is a completely contrasting style, and this has a great effect from a directorial perspective. Although Gidayubushi does not have a family head system like other traditional Japanese music, the tradition has been passed down without disruption, primarily due to the respect for the style. The custom of a tayu respectfully accepting a tokohon before and after a performance when he or she goes onstage can be seen as an expression of respect for the traditions of the ancestors. However, it is also true that the tune of Gidayubushi has changed over time, and in recent years, with the emergence of Toyotake Yamashiro Shojo, the style of storytelling has been streamlined. In this way, the correct attitude to move with the times of Gidayubushi is for performers to develop new styles by making use of their individuality while adhering to the traditions of their ancestors.

The shamisen used in Gidayu-bushi has a thick neck and a large plectrum, which produces a solemn sound. This is because Gidayu's stories are almost all tragic, but in any case, it is different in meaning from simple accompaniment, and the emphasis is on helping the tayu's storytelling and expressing the content of the play more accurately. Therefore, even a single note of the same scale can have a big difference depending on the situation, and this point differs from other accompaniments, and is particularly referred to as "playing Joruri" or "playing the pattern." Like the tayu, the shamisen also has "styles," and if we broadly divide them, the main ones are Tsuruzawa from the Takemoto-za and Nozawa from the Toyotake-za, but they were not as strict as the tayu's style, as seen in the fact that the first Takezawa Gon'emon, who was the shamisen of the first Gidayu, moved to the Toyotake-za and played Toyotake Ueno Shojo. To give a brief overview of the various shamisen schools, the first Tsuruzawa Tojiro became the head shamisen at the Takemotoza after Gon'emon, and the first Nozawa Kihachiro succeeded Gon'emon at the Toyotakeza. During the Bunka era (1804-1818), the third Takezawa Yasichi changed his name to Toyosawa Hirosuke and the Toyosawa school was born. The differences in the style of shamisen music today are largely due to the Bunraku and Hikoroku schools of the Meiji era, and the same songs are played with different hands. The transmission of songs has made great progress since the third Tsuruzawa Tojiro (commonly known as Matsuya Seishichi) invented a method of notation during the An'ei era (1772-1781). This method shows the key points of the strings using 48 Iroha characters, and is called "shu" because it was written in red ink.

[Shoichi Yamada]

Puppets and puppeteers

Structure of the doll

A doll consists of a head, torso, hands, legs, and clothing. The size of the heads is about 15 to 20 centimeters, and there are about 70 different types according to gender, age, personality, etc. All are carved from wood, painted with paint, and worn with a wig. There is a throat bar and a torso hook under the neck, and when operated with a string, the eyes, eyebrows, and mouth move. However, the necks of female dolls have little movement. Whale baleen is used as the spring for the mechanism. The torso consists of shoulder boards, a waist ring, and two pieces of cloth connecting them, one in the front and one in the back, and the torso hook is inserted into the hole in the center of the shoulder board. The arms and legs are hung from both shoulders of the torso with strings, but as a rule female roles do not have legs, and the hems of the costume are swung to make them look like they have legs. There are also over a dozen different types of hands and feet depending on the role, and the left hand has a sashigane. Costumes are often the same for all roles, and feature a slit in the back for the puppeteer to hold the tokusatsu. Costumed puppets are the largest for the rough roles of the tachiyaku, which can reach 140-150cm in height and weigh up to 20kg.

[Shoichi Yamada]

How to use a puppet

Three puppeteers operate one puppet, with the central puppeteer holding the dokuwada in his left hand to support the entire puppet and operating the puppet's right hand with his right. This person is called the omozukai (main puppeteer). The left puppeteer operates the puppet's left hand, while the foot puppeteers operate both of the puppet's feet. To make it easier for the foot puppeteer to work, the omozukai wears special wooden clogs that are 17 to 35 centimeters high. These are called stage clogs, and their height varies depending on the size of the puppet being operated. Even taller clogs are used for puppets that ride horses. The stage clogs have straw sandals attached to the bottom to prevent slipping. As a rule, all three puppeteers wear black kimonos called kurogo and black hoods and do not show their faces to the audience, but during kijito and kiriba scenes, only the omozukai wears a crested kimono, hakama, or kataginu (shoulder garment). This is called "detsukai" and there are records of Tatsumatsu Hachirobei demonstrating this technique even at the time when it was a one-person puppeteer. Less important characters (such as ladies-in-waiting and catchers) use one-person puppets and are called "tsume". A puppeteer's training begins as a foot puppeteer, then progresses to left and main puppeteer, and it is commonly said that it takes "ten years for the foot puppeteer, ten years for the left puppeteer," and it takes a long period of training to become a main puppeteer.

[Shoichi Yamada]

stage

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The stage is well-known in the audience, where Tayu protrudes diagonally and speaks of "Yuka," which is a "Yuka," which is able to rotate like a rotating stage, and the tayu and shamisen are replaced.

[Yamada Shoichi]

Puppet Bunraku other than Bunraku

Like Bunraku, puppet shows performed by three people in conjunction with the Gidayu-bushi, remain all over the country, and are widely distributed in the east from Nasahara (Kanuma City) in Tochigi Prefecture to Kyushu in the west, and there are many places that have passed down the heads of masterpieces from the Edo period. However, the most notable ones are from Awaji (Hyogo Prefecture) and Awa (Tokushima Prefecture). As mentioned in the history of puppet joururi, the puppet troupe had a close relationship with Nishinomiya Ebisu Shrine, so it was transmitted from Awaji Island, just across the sea, across Naruto Naruto and Awa, and many puppet zas were born in the villages.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

[Yamada Shoichi]

Registering intangible cultural heritage

In 2008, it was registered as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO (UN Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization) as "Puppet Joruri Bunraku".

[Editorial Department]

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do . Joruri Collection (1971, Shogakukan) ▽ "Complete Collection of Japanese Classical Literature 43-44: Chikamatsu Monzaemon Collection (1972, 1973, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Takagi Hiroshi, Everything About Bunraku (1982, Tankosha)" ▽ "Gondo Yoshikazu, The World of Bunraku (1985, Kodansha)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

人形浄瑠璃は、一般に浄瑠璃の語りにあわせて演じる人形劇全般の称であるが、狭義には義太夫(ぎだゆう)節を使い、三人遣い形式によるものをさし、現在では唯一の専門劇団である「文楽(ぶんらく)」のことを意味する。江戸時代には操(あやつり)浄瑠璃または操芝居とよんだ。文楽は世界の数ある人形劇のなかでも、もっとも洗練された完成度の高い舞台芸術の一つといえよう。なお、人形浄瑠璃と歌舞伎(かぶき)とは約400年に及ぶ歴史のなかで、相互に影響、競合しながら歩んできた。

［山田庄一］

歴史

源流から古浄瑠璃時代

日本における人形劇の源流を探ると、宗教的・呪術(じゅじゅつ)的な古来の神人形と、大陸から渡来したと考えられる芸能的人形の二つの流れが想定されるが、少なくともすでに奈良時代には人形回しの芸能が存在したことが文献によって知られる。平安後期の11世紀中ごろになると、人形回しは逃散(ちょうさん)民によって形成された漂泊集団の職能の一つになり、その集団を「傀儡子(くぐつ)」とよんだ。鎌倉時代に入ると、傀儡集団は神社や仏閣の周辺あるいは街道の宿駅に定住するようになり、さらに室町時代になると、猿楽(さるがく)や幸若(こうわか)の舞を演ずるものも現れ、このうち西宮戎(にしのみやえびす)神社（兵庫県）の末社、百太夫(ひゃくだゆう)社を本拠とする一団はとくに勢力をもち、「夷舁(えびすかき)」（えびすまわし）と称して各地を回った。この夷舁は近年まで残って、春になると御影(みえい)などを配って家々を祝福して夷の人形を舞わせた。

　一方、日本には古来「語物(かたりもの)」と称して筋のある物語を口で語る芸能の伝統があり、「平曲(へいきょく)」を始まりとしている。平曲は琵琶(びわ)の伴奏にあわせて『平家物語』を語るもので琵琶法師の専業であったが、謡曲や幸若あるいは説経節(せっきょうぶし)などの音曲の出現で流行に遅れたため平曲にいろいろの改革が加えられ、物語の種類も拡大されていった。それらのなかで『十二段草子』（浄瑠璃姫物語）が人気を博し、その曲節を浄瑠璃節とよんで他の詞章にも流用されるようになった。初期の浄瑠璃は相変わらず琵琶を伴奏とし、あるいは扇拍子の素語りであったが、永禄(えいろく)（1558～1570）ごろ琉球(りゅうきゅう)から三弦楽器が渡来し、これを改良した三味線を伴奏に用いるようになって曲節が大きく飛躍、浄瑠璃は新しい時代の音曲としての位置を確立した。文禄(ぶんろく)・慶長(けいちょう)（1592～1615）のころ浄瑠璃と夷舁が結び付いて人形浄瑠璃が発生したが、その始まりは、浄瑠璃に初めて三味線を使ったと伝えられる沢住検校(さわずみけんぎょう)の弟子、目貫屋長三郎(めぬきやちょうざぶろう)と、西宮の夷舁、引田淡路掾(ひきたあわじのじょう)と伝えられ、あるいは浄瑠璃語りは滝野勾当(こうとう)の弟子の監物(けんもつ)、次郎兵衛だともいい、明らかでない。人形浄瑠璃は時流にのって大いにもてはやされ、慶長の終わりから元和(げんな)（1615～1624）ごろには京都はもとより江戸をはじめ全国各地で興行されるようになった。しかし舞台は小屋掛けの粗末なもので、人形も一人遣いの簡単な動きしかできず、浄瑠璃もまだまだ単調な曲節で、物語も神仏の霊験(れいげん)記などの素朴な内容であった。

　浄瑠璃が流行すると演者の数も増え、それぞれにくふうを凝らして一派をたてる者が続出し、技芸を競うようになった。杉山丹後掾(たんごのじょう)は慶長の末ごろ京都から江戸に下り、1615年（元和1）に江戸で最初の浄瑠璃興行を行った。杉山一門の柔らかな芸風に対して、沢住検校門下の薩摩浄雲(さつまじょううん)は硬派の代表で、寛永(かんえい)（1624～1644）のころ江戸に下り、豪快勇壮な語り口が江戸の人々の好みにあったため大いに繁盛し、金平(きんぴら)節の元祖桜井和泉太夫(いずみたゆう)（丹波少掾(たんばのしょうじょう)）、虎屋(とらや)源太夫などの名手が門下から現れた。一方、上方(かみがた)では、明暦(めいれき)の大火（1657）のあと虎屋源太夫は弟子の喜太夫とともに上京して四条河原で興行して好評を博し、源太夫門下から名手井上播磨掾(はりまのじょう)が出た。播磨掾は師匠譲りの武勇物を得意としたが、浄瑠璃にくふうを凝らして「うれい（愁い）」（情緒的なもの）にも長じ播磨節をたて、大坂道頓堀(どうとんぼり)で操芝居を興行して人気を集めた。当時の大坂では「うれい」を強調した角太夫(かくだゆう)節の山本角太夫（土佐掾(とさのじょう)）が、南京(なんきん)糸操り、水からくり、手妻(てづま)人形など、からくりをくふうした人形と組んで興行して対抗していた。

　同じころ京都では、紀州の人、宇治嘉太夫(かだゆう)が謡曲を基本とした一派を編み出し（嘉太夫節、加賀節）人気があったが、1677年（延宝5）大坂から播磨掾の孫弟子にあたる清水理太夫をワキに迎えて一座を固め、同年暮れに受領(ずりょう)（掾号を受けること――宮家や公家(くげ)の収入源でもあった）して宇治加賀掾(かがのじょう)を名のった。まもなく不和を生じて加賀掾のもとを去った理太夫は西国(さいごく)に下って修行を積み、1684年（貞享1）名を竹本義太夫(ぎだゆう)と改め大坂道頓堀に竹本座の櫓(やぐら)をあげた。義太夫はそれまでの各派浄瑠璃の長所を集大成して、さらに自らのくふうを加えたうえ、作者に近松門左衛門(ちかまつもんざえもん)、三味線に竹沢権右衛門(ごんえもん)、人形遣いに辰松(たつまつ)八郎兵衛らの名手を得て大坂中の人気を独占し、やがて他派の浄瑠璃はしだいに衰微して「浄瑠璃」といえば「義太夫節」を意味するまでになった。そこで竹本座旗揚げまでの各派浄瑠璃を総称して「古浄瑠璃」とよんでいる。

［山田庄一］

義太夫による完成と竹豊(ちくほう)時代

竹本義太夫は自分の創始した浄瑠璃を「当流」あるいは「新浄瑠璃」と名づけたが、それは従前の各派浄瑠璃と芸術的に大きな開きがあり、明らかに一線を画するものであった。基本的には井上播磨掾の剛健な音(おん)遣いと宇治加賀掾の繊細な節回しを統合しているが、諸派浄瑠璃の曲節のほか、謡曲、狂言小歌、平曲、説経節なども取り入れ、当時の音曲を集大成したものであった。しかも近松門左衛門という不世出の名作者を得て、戯曲の内容は文学として飛躍的に高度になったばかりでなく、従来のような神仏霊験譚(れいげんたん)や武勇伝の単調な物語から、人情の機微をうがった華麗なロマンへ発展し、さらに『曽根崎(そねざき)心中』に始まる「世話物(せわもの)」の創造によってよりいっそう観客と密着したものとなった。戯曲の構成もこのころに時代物の五段組織が定着した。その理由については能楽の五番立(だて)を模したというが、世話物の場合は物語が短く単純なため、通常、上・中・下の3巻あるいは上・下2巻にまとめられている。

　一方、人形については傀儡子の芸からあまり進歩がなく、片手遣いの小さなもので、舞台も簡単に幕を張った陰から人形を上に差し出して演じていたが、やがて場面に応じて道具を飾るようになり、張り抜きの山やからくりを利用して本水(ほんみず)を用いる舞台なども現れた。人形も山本飛騨掾(ひだのじょう)が手妻(てづま)人形を考案して、背中から手を入れて引き栓(せん)でからくりを扱う「差し込み式」をつくり、後世の人形の仕掛けの源流を創始したが、辰松八郎兵衛などは裾(すそ)から手を入れて遣う「突っ込み式」で、いずれにしても一人遣いから脱しきれなかった。

　竹本義太夫は1701年（元禄14）受領して筑後掾(ちくごのじょう)藤原博教(ふじわらのひろのり)と名のり、名声、技芸とも高まっていったが、2年後の1703年に門弟の筆頭で美声の誉れ高かった竹本采女(うねめ)が独立して豊竹(とよたけ)若太夫と名のり、竹本座と同じ道頓堀に豊竹座を創立した。作者には狂歌師鯛屋貞柳(たいやていりゅう)の弟で学者・俳諧(はいかい)師として著名であった紀海音(きのかいおん)を招いて近松に対抗させ、『冥途の飛脚(めいどのひきゃく)』に対する『傾城三度笠(けいせいさんどがさ)』、『心中宵庚申(よいごうしん)』に対する『心中二つ腹帯』など同じ題材の作品をはじめ数多くの名作を上演して成功、ここに竹本、豊竹両座が競い合ってますます人形浄瑠璃の人気を盛り上げ、技芸面でも急速な充実を示した。これより1765年（明和2）に豊竹座、その翌々年の1767年に竹本座が相次いで退転するまでの約60年間は操浄瑠璃の黄金時代で、「歌舞伎はあって無きがごとし」とまでいわれ、一般に「竹豊時代」とよんでいる。竹本座では義太夫没（1714）後、その遺言により門弟の政太夫(まさたゆう)を後継者とすることに不満を抱く者たちが相次いで豊竹座に移る。この苦境に、近松は『国性爺合戦(こくせんやかっせん)』を書き、17か月続演という空前の大入りを収めた。さらに、近松没（1724）後も、初世竹田出雲(いずも)、文耕堂(ぶんこうどう)、長谷川千四(はせがわせんし)らの合作を次々に発表、政太夫は1734年（享保19）2世義太夫を襲名、翌年上総少掾(かずさのしょうじょう)を受領し、さらに1737年（元文2）には播磨少掾(はりまのしょうじょう)を再受領するなど、語り口に新境地を開いた。また、初世吉田文三郎(ぶんざぶろう)らが人形の改良に力を尽くし、手妻の技術を取り入れて、人形の首(かしら)の目や口、眉(まゆ)あるいは手足などの動くくふうを行い、ついに1734年の『芦屋道満大内鑑(あしやどうまんおおうちかがみ)』の野干平(やかんべい)の役で三人遣いを考案し、ここに現在の人形浄瑠璃の形式がいちおうできあがったわけである。義太夫節も、両座に優れた太夫が輩出し、それぞれ元祖の語り風を守って座風が明確になり、特色を発揮した。両座の位置から、じみで堅実な竹本座の語りを「西風(にしふう)」、華麗でつややかな豊竹座のものを「東風」とよんでいる。

　続いて延享(えんきょう)年間（1744～1748）に入ると、播磨少掾が死去、越前少掾(えちぜんのしょうじょう)を受領した豊竹座の祖、若太夫も引退して、竹豊両座とも新しい活躍期を迎えた。とくに竹本座では、座本の2世竹田出雲が豊竹座から立(たて)作者の並木宗輔(そうすけ)（千柳(せんりゅう)）を迎え三好松洛(みよししょうらく)らとの合作で『夏祭浪花鑑(なつまつりなにわかがみ)』『菅原伝授手習鑑(すがわらでんじゅてならいかがみ)』『義経千本桜(よしつねせんぼんざくら)』『仮名手本忠臣蔵(かなでほんちゅうしんぐら)』など浄瑠璃の代表的名作を次々に上演して操り史上の最盛期を現出した。しかし人形の発達によって自由な動きが可能になるにしたがって浄瑠璃の内容も見た目本位の作品が多くなり、かつ、操りに圧倒された歌舞伎がいち早く浄瑠璃の当り狂言を取り入れて上演することによって衰運挽回(ばんかい)の機運をつかんだことなどが重なり合って、人形浄瑠璃の人気はしだいに下降線をたどることとなった。すなわち、竹本座では近松半二を作者の中心として『奥州安達原(おうしゅうあだちがはら)』『本朝廿四孝(ほんちょうにじゅうしこう)』などの名作を上演したが興行的には苦しく、豊竹座も1764年（明和1）に座本であり創始者であった越前少掾が84歳の高齢で没するとたちまち座運が傾いて、両座は相次いで退転、ここに竹豊時代は幕を閉じた。このあと豊竹座は1767年に豊竹此吉(このきち)が北堀江市(きたほりえいち)の側(かわ)に再興、竹本座も道頓堀で再興を図り、『妹背山婦女庭訓(いもせやまおんなていきん)』（1771）で一時的な大当りをとったこともあったが、長続きはしなかった。

［山田庄一］

文楽座創立から国立文楽劇場開場まで

竹豊両座の退転後は演技者には数多くの名手が出たが、作者には優秀な人材なく、新作の行われることはあっても傑作は生まれず、むしろ過去の名作の再演が多くなり、浄瑠璃も人形も先人の遺産のうえにさらに磨きをかけてゆく洗練の時代に入っていった。浄瑠璃の流行は全国に広がって、天明(てんめい)期（1781～1789）には江戸で新作が行われ『伽羅先代萩(めいぼくせんだいはぎ)』『加賀見山旧錦絵(かがみやまこきょうのにしきえ)』などは今日に残っている。大坂では社寺の境内や寄席(よせ)など小さな操芝居の数が増えていったが、寛政(かんせい)年間（1789～1801）に淡路出身の植村文楽軒が浄瑠璃の小屋の経営に手を染めた。1811年（文化8）2世文楽軒のとき大坂博労(ばくろう)町稲荷(いなり)の境内に操芝居を開き、さらに4代目の文楽翁は1872年（明治5）に松島に移転、文楽座と名づけた。これに対し1884年に稲荷境内に彦六座ができたので、文楽座も平野町の御霊(ごりょう)神社境内に移転した。文楽・彦六両座の対抗はかつての竹豊時代の再現を思わせ、しかも太夫には2世竹本越路(こしじ)太夫（摂津大掾(せっつのだいじょう)）、2世竹本津太夫、3世竹本大隅(おおすみ)太夫ら、三味線に2世豊沢団平、5世と6世の豊沢広助(ひろすけ)ら、人形に初世吉田玉造、吉田玉助、初世桐竹紋十郎(きりたけもんじゅうろう)らの名手が輩出して技芸を競い合い、明治期の人形浄瑠璃は黄金時代を築き上げた。しかし、経営は双方とも苦しく、まず1893年に彦六座がつぶれ、1909年（明治42）には文楽座も植村家の手から松竹に譲渡された。彦六系の芸人たちはその後も稲荷座、明楽(めいらく)座、堀江座と続いて文楽座に対抗していたが、1914年（大正3）佐野屋橋南詰(みなみづめ)の近松座の休座を機に文楽座に併合され、ここに人形浄瑠璃の専門劇場としては文楽座が唯一の存在となり、「文楽」の名称が人形浄瑠璃の代名詞となった。

　大正期も、太夫に3世越路太夫、3世津太夫、6世竹本土佐太夫、2世豊竹古靭(こうつぼ)太夫（山城少掾(やましろのしょうじょう)）ら、三味線に3世鶴沢清六(せいろく)、6世豊沢広助(ひろすけ)、7世野沢吉兵衛(きちべえ)、初世鶴沢道八(どうはち)、6世鶴沢友次郎(ともじろう)ら、人形に初世吉田栄三(えいざ)、吉田文五郎らが数多くの名舞台を展開した。しかし、1926年（大正15）に御霊文楽座が火災にあい、まもなく四つ橋に移転新築されたが、世相は昭和初期の不況から第二次世界大戦へ突入、四つ橋文楽座も戦災を受けた。

　終戦後、文楽座は松竹の手でまもなく四つ橋に再建されたが、当時急速に高まった労働組合運動の影響を受けて、1948年（昭和23）5月ついに組合派と非組合派に分裂、組合派は2世桐竹紋十郎を中心に3世豊竹呂太夫(ろだゆう)（10世豊竹若大夫）、2世野沢喜左衛門らが集まって三和(みつわ)会を結成して松竹を離れ自主公演を行い、非組合派は豊竹山城少掾、4世鶴沢清六、吉田文五郎（難波掾(なにわのじょう)）らを中心に因(ちなみ)会派と称し、従来どおり四つ橋文楽座を本拠とし松竹資本のもとに興行を続けていった。この2派分裂によって演技陣が甚だしく手薄となり、両派とも興行成績は思わしくなく、松竹は挽回を期して1956年、文楽座を四つ橋から発生の地道頓堀に移転新築し、また『お蝶(ちょう)夫人』『ハムレット』『椿姫(つばきひめ)』など過去にはなかったジャンルの新作を試みたりした。この間、1955年2月には6世竹本住大夫(すみたゆう)、豊竹山城少掾、8世竹本綱大夫(つなたゆう)、4世鶴沢清六の4人が第一次重要無形文化財保持者（人間国宝）に認定され、同年5月には文楽両派がそろって「人形浄瑠璃文楽」として重要無形文化財の総合指定を受け、伝承者の養成や公開に関する経費の国庫負担への道が開かれた。しかし、1962年に松竹は文楽（因会派）の経営放棄を決断した。その結果、国、大阪府、大阪市、放送文化基金（当初はNHK）の四者が補助金を出して設立した財団法人文楽協会が1963年1月に発足、同時に因会と三和会の両派合同が実現し、同年4月、道頓堀文楽座で第1回公演が行われた。しかし、文楽座の建物は従前どおり松竹の所有であったため、まもなく朝日座と改称され、文楽は専用の劇場を失ってしまった。

　1966年、東京都千代田区隼(はやぶさ)町に国立劇場が開場し、その小劇場（客席数630）は文楽上演を主目的とした理想的設計であり、年4回の文楽の定期公演が定着して若い観客層の開拓にも成功するとともに、後継者の養成も始められた。また相次いで行われた欧米などの海外公演が予想以上の好評を博して、文楽は世界最高の人形劇という声価を高めつつある。それだけに本拠の大阪に専用の劇場建設を望む声が関係者の間に高まり、悲願は実って1984年3月、大阪市中央区日本橋(にっぽんばし)に国立劇場文楽劇場（通称国立文楽劇場、客席数753）が開場した。後継者養成の本拠もこちらに移され、往時の隆盛をふたたび取り戻すべく文楽は新時代に突入したわけである。

　なお、1955年に認定された4人以降の人間国宝は、大夫では10世豊竹若大夫(わかたゆう)、4世竹本越路大夫、4世竹本津大夫、7世竹本住大夫、三味線では6世鶴沢寛治(かんじ)、野沢松之輔(まつのすけ)、2世野沢喜左衛門(きざえもん)、10世竹沢弥七(やしち)、5世鶴沢燕三(えんざ)、4世野沢錦糸(きんし)、8世竹沢団六(だんろく)（のち7世鶴沢寛治）である。

［山田庄一］

文楽の太夫と三味線

人形浄瑠璃はその発生の初めから太夫が主導権を握ってきた。それは、いかなる人形遣いの名人がいても、太夫が作品の意味を完全に語り生かしてくれなければ、どうにもならないからであった。したがって一座の座長はかならず太夫の第一人者がこれにあたり、絶対の権威をもっていた。その名前を劇場の櫓(やぐら)の下に記したので「櫓下(やぐらした)」とよび、また番付面で小屋の紋章の下に名を書くため「紋下(もんした)」ともいう（種々の事情により豊竹山城少掾を最後に櫓下はなくなっている）。

　太夫は本来1人で一段を受け持っていたが、のちには一段を2、3人で分担するようになった。この場合、初めの部分を口(くち)、次を中(なか)あるいは次(つぎ)、最終部分を切(きり)とよび、切が最重要の部分でとくに切場(きりば)と称し、これに対して口、中、次を端場(はば)という。端場でも切場と場面が異なり独立しているものを立端場(たてはば)とよぶ。また端場のうちで短いものは太夫、三味線が観客に姿を見せず御簾(みす)の中で演奏することがあり、これを「御簾内(みすうち)」というが、普通は肩衣(かたぎぬ)を着けた「出語り」が原則になっている。太夫は1人で一段を語るから、登場人物の性格はもとより舞台の情景描写まで的確に表現することがたいせつで、音楽的な美しさに優先する。浄瑠璃の演奏を「歌う」といわず「語る」という意味もここにある。ただし道行(みちゆき)などの景事(けいごと)（舞踊的要素の多い場面）では、太夫、三味線弾きがそれぞれ複数で床(ゆか)に並んで合奏して音楽的効果を高めることもあり、また複数の太夫が各役を分担して語る「掛合い」も行われている。義太夫節の音階が他の邦楽に比べて低いのも「語る」目的のためであり、さらに、力強い発声の要求から、太夫は厚い腹帯を巻き下腹部に砂袋を当てて肚(はら)の底から声を出す。しかし戯曲の内容を語るのが第一義だといっても、演者によって解釈も異なれば、肉体的な天分も各人違うのは当然で、そこから太夫固有の語り口が生まれてくる。

　竹本義太夫は大音であったが文章を語るうちに歌い、歌ううちに語る絶妙の域に達していたといわれ、どちらかといえば渋くじみであった。これに対し豊竹若太夫は天性の美声で、華麗な節回しに豊かな表現をする華やかではでな芸風で、まったく対照的であった。この西風と東風が義太夫節の両面を示すものであったが、のちには個人の芸風が尊重されるようになった。これが「風(ふう)」であり、原則的には初演の太夫の名をかぶせてよぶが、とくに後世の太夫が優れたくふうを残した場合にはその風が伝えられているものもあり、またある一部分だけを違った風で語ることもある。現在、太夫の風をもっとも顕著に示している作品は『妹背山』の三段目「山の段」で、背山のほうを渋く荘重な西の染太夫風、妹山のほうを明るく華やかな東の春太夫風とまったく対照的な語り口で演じるのが演出的にも優れた効果をあげている。義太夫節には他の邦楽のように家元制度が存在しないにもかかわらず、芸脈が乱れることなく伝承されてきたのは、一にかかって風の尊重によるところが大きい。太夫が床にあがった際、演奏の前後に床本を恭しく頂く習慣も、先人の風を尊ぶ心の一つの表れとみていい。とはいっても義太夫節の曲節が時代とともに変化したことも事実で、近年では豊竹山城少掾の出現によって語り口が合理化されたといえよう。このように、先人の風をあくまでも守りつつ、演者が個性を生かして新しい芸風を開拓してゆくところに、義太夫節の時代とともに歩む正しい姿勢があるわけである。

　義太夫節の三味線には太棹(ふとざお)が用いられ、撥(ばち)も大きくて荘重な響きを出す。これは、義太夫の語りの内容がほとんど悲劇ばかりであることにも起因するが、いずれにしても単なる伴奏とは意味が異なり、あくまでも太夫の語りを助けて戯曲の内容をより的確に表現することに重点が置かれる。したがって同じ音階の一音にも場合によって大きな差異が生ずるわけで、この点がほかの伴奏と違い、とくに「浄瑠璃を弾く」とか「模様を弾く」というような言い方がされる。太夫と同様、三味線にも「風(ふう)」があり、大別すれば竹本座系の鶴沢と豊竹座系の野沢が中心であるが、そもそも初世義太夫の三味線であった初世竹沢権右衛門が豊竹座に移って豊竹上野少掾(こうずけのしょうじょう)を弾いたように、太夫の風ほど厳格でなかった。三味線の各派を概略説明すれば、権右衛門のあと竹本座の筆頭三味線になったのが鶴沢の祖初世友次郎で、同じく豊竹座で権右衛門の跡を継いだのが野沢の祖初世喜八郎であり、文化(ぶんか)年間（1804～1818）に3世竹沢弥七(やしち)が豊沢広助と改名して豊沢系が生まれた。現在の三味線の曲風の違いは明治期の文楽系と彦六系によるものが多く、同一の曲でも手が異なっている。なお曲の伝承については、安永(あんえい)年間（1772～1781）に3世鶴沢友次郎（俗に松屋清七）が記譜法を発明してから大きく進歩した。これは弦の勘どころ（ツボ）をいろは四十八文字で示したもので、朱墨で記入したので「朱(しゅ)」とよんでいる。

［山田庄一］

人形と人形遣い

人形の構造

人形は首(かしら)、胴、手、足、衣装からなっている。首の大きさは約15～20センチメートルで、男女、老若、性格などに応じて約70種類もあり、すべて木彫りに塗料で彩色を施し、鬘(かつら)をかぶせて使う。首の下に咽木(のどき)、胴串(どうぐし)があり、糸で操作すると目、眉、口が動く仕掛けになっている。ただし女の首は動きが少ない。仕掛けのばねには鯨のひげを用いる。胴は肩板と腰輪とそれをつなぐ前後2枚の布からなり、肩板の中央の穴に首の胴串を差し込んで遣う。手足は胴の両肩から紐(ひも)でぶら下げるが、原則として女役には足がなく、衣装の裾をさばくことで足があるように見せている。また手、足には役柄によって十数種類あり、左の手には差金(さしがね)がついている。衣装は役柄によって共通したものを用いる場合が多く、人形遣いが胴串を握るための切れ目が背中にあるのが特徴である。衣装を着けた人形は立役(たちやく)の荒い役柄の物がもっとも大きく、身長は約140～150センチメートル、重量20キログラムに及ぶものがある。

［山田庄一］

人形の遣い方

一体の人形を3人で遣うが、中心になる人形遣いが左手で胴串を握って人形全体を支え、右手で人形の右手を遣う。これを主遣(おもづか)いとよぶ。人形の左手を左遣いが、人形の両足を足遣いがそれぞれ遣うが、足遣いが楽に作業できるように、主遣いは高さ17～35センチメートルの特殊な下駄(げた)を履く。これを舞台下駄とよんでいるが、高さは遣う人形の大きさによって変える。馬に乗る人形のときにはさらに高いものも用いる。舞台下駄は底に草鞋(わらじ)をつけて滑り止めにする。人形遣いは3人とも黒衣(くろご)とよぶ黒い着物に黒い頭巾(ずきん)をかぶって観客に顔を見せないのが原則であるが、景事や切場では主遣いだけが紋付に袴(はかま)、あるいは肩衣を着けて遣う。これを「出遣い」とよび、一人遣いの当時すでに辰松八郎兵衛が出遣いを見せた記録がある。なお登場人物のうちであまり重要でない役（たとえば腰元や捕手(とりて)など）は一人遣いの人形を用い、これを「つめ」とよんでいる。人形遣いの修行は足遣いから始めて、左、主と進むのが決まりで、俗に「足十年、左十年」といわれ、主遣いまでには長期間の訓練が要求される。

［山田庄一］

舞台

文楽の舞台はほかの演劇と違って、三人遣いのために特殊な構造になっている。いわゆる平舞台の部分は船底(ふなぞこ)と称して約2メートルの幅で床面より37センチメートルほど低くなっており、この前後に手摺(てすり)と称する板が立てられる。その高さは前面（二の手）が約48センチメートル、後方（一の手）が約85センチメートルで、これより奥、すなわち二重にあたる部分を本手(ほんて)とよぶ。手摺は足遣いを隠すためのもので、つまり人形の足の高さはつねに約85センチメートルに支えられ、客席から見ると人形が手摺の上端に立っているように見えるわけである。さらに二の手の前に三の手とよぶ高さ24センチメートルほどの黒い手摺が置かれる。船底の左右（上手、下手）にはそれぞれ人形の出入りする揚幕があり、下手の揚幕の上が鳴物(なりもの)部屋になっている。舞台の間口はせいぜい12～15メートル程度が適当である。舞台の上手には客席に斜めに突き出した太夫の語る「床(ゆか)」があり、回り舞台のように回転できるようになっていて、太夫、三味線の交代を行う。

［山田庄一］

文楽以外の人形浄瑠璃

文楽のように三人遣いで義太夫節にあわせて演じる人形劇は全国各地に残っており、東は栃木県の奈佐原(なさはら)（鹿沼(かぬま)市）から西は九州まで広く分布して、なかには江戸時代の名作の首(かしら)を伝承している所も少なくない。しかしなんといっても淡路（兵庫県）と阿波(あわ)（徳島県）のものが目だっている。人形浄瑠璃の歴史でも触れたように、人形の一座は西宮戎(にしのみやえびす)神社と密接な関係をもっていたから、海を隔ててすぐ向かい側の淡路島からさらに鳴門(なると)を越えて阿波へ伝えられ、村々に多くの人形座が生まれた。そして、本流の大坂とは別に独自の発達を遂げ、とくに幕末から明治にかけて、鳴州(めいしゅう)、人形常(にんぎょうつね)、人形富(とみ)、大江順、天狗久(てんぐひさ)らの人形彫りの名手が阿波に出現したのと、観客数が増えて小屋の規模が大きくなったことから人形の大形化が現れ、首の種類や表情も文楽系とは違ったものとなった。阿波の人形の最盛期は明治30年（1897）ごろまでであるが、大正から昭和にかけてしだいに凋落(ちょうらく)の道をたどり、とくに戦後は急速に衰退して絶滅の危機に瀕(ひん)していたが、伝統文化見直しで保存への気運が生まれ、地元の高校生がクラブ活動の一つに取り上げるなど、若い世代にも伝統の火を守り続けるための動きが現れている。

［山田庄一］

無形文化遺産の登録

2008年（平成20）「人形浄瑠璃文楽」としてユネスコ（国連教育科学文化機関）の無形文化遺産に登録された。

［編集部］

『『日本古典文学大系49・50　近松浄瑠璃集』（1958、1959・岩波書店）』▽『『日本古典文学大系51・52　浄瑠璃集』（1959、1960・岩波書店）』▽『角田一郎著『人形劇の成立に関する研究』（1963・旭屋書店）』▽『斎藤清二郎著『かしら』（1964・岩崎美術社）』▽『『日本古典文学大系99　文楽浄瑠璃集』（1965・岩波書店）』▽『宮尾しげを著『図説文楽人形』（1967・中林出版）』▽『吉永孝雄著『文楽』（1967・淡交新社）』▽『『伝統と現代5　人形芝居』（1969・学芸書林）』▽『『日本古典文学全集45　浄瑠璃集』（1971・小学館）』▽『『日本古典文学全集43・44　近松門左衛門集』（1972、1973・小学館）』▽『高木浩志著『文楽のすべて』（1982・淡交社）』▽『権藤芳一著『文楽の世界』（1985・講談社）』