Immigrants - Toraijin

Japanese: 渡来人 - とらいじん

A general term for people who migrated to Japan mainly from Korea and China in ancient times. Sometimes it can also be used to include their descendants. Traditionally, they were called "naturalized people," but in recent years, research into the history of Japan-Korea relations and ancient history has highlighted the harm of using the term "naturalized people," and instead, the term "toraijin" has come to be used, which has become established today.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

Problems with the "naturalized" view of history

The word "naturalization" was originally based on the Sinocentrism of ancient China, and meant that the surrounding ethnic groups would submit to the Chinese emperor and follow his national order, but the ruling class of Japan, which established the Ritsuryo state modeled on the Chinese state system in the late 7th century to the 8th century, also accepted this Sinocentrism, and considered all people who had immigrated to Japan from overseas before that time to have "naturalized" in admiration of the virtues of the emperor. In other words, calling ancient immigrants "naturalized people" is based on the historical view of the ruling class of the Ritsuryo state, and is not a suitable historical term to use for immigrants who came to Japan before the 7th century when a nation to naturalize had not yet been established in the Japanese archipelago. Furthermore, the word "naturalization" is still used today as a legal term to mean the acquisition of Japanese nationality by foreigners, but since the Meiji era, most "naturalized people" were Koreans and Chinese, and the prejudice that these people were different from Japanese and should be discriminated against and despised was the ideological background of Japan's colonial rule and invasion of Korea and China. It should also be noted that a historical view that sees ancient immigrants as "naturalized people" can easily lead to the mistaken idea of trying to justify Japan's rule over neighboring East Asian countries by tracing it back through history.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

Time of arrival

The period when immigrants from Korea and other places migrated can be roughly divided into the following four stages. (1) 2nd century BC to 3rd century AD During this period, Korean pottery was excavated in various parts of Western Japan, and the activities of a considerable number of immigrant groups are recognized from tomb systems. The establishment and development of the Yayoi culture was triggered by the spread of foreign technologies such as rice cultivation and metalworking brought by these immigrants. (2) 5th century As can be seen from the Goguryeo King Gwanggaeto Stele, the external activities of Wa (Yamato government) became more active during this period, and immigrants, mainly from Korea, became prominent accordingly. The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki also record that the ancestors of the Aya clan, Hata clan, and Kawachi no Fumi clan migrated during this period, which corresponds to the Ojin era. (3) From the latter half of the 5th century to the 6th century Following the stage of (2), from the reign of Emperor Yuryaku to the reign of Emperor Kinmei, people with advanced technology, known as "the most talented people of today," migrated from Baekje and Kara (Mimana) in southern Korea. At the time, the southern part of the Korean peninsula was in the midst of a conflict between Korean countries that also involved the Yamato government, and it is believed that people from the areas that became the battlefields migrated en masse under the leadership of powerful chieftains. (4) From the latter half of the 7th century With the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, many people, including royalty and aristocrats, fled the country. Some of them became high-ranking government officials in the Japanese government.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

The Yamato Government and Immigrants

Of the four stages mentioned above, the activities of immigrants in (2) and (3) are especially significant in the history of the formation of the ancient Japanese state and the history of social development. The innovations in iron casting technology for weapons and agricultural tools, and the spread of new pottery production and weaving techniques brought by immigrants during this period contributed to the development of the political, military, and productivity of the Yamato government, and also helped to develop the transportation network and expand the trading area. In addition, dry-field agricultural techniques and minor grain cultivation, which were inherited from China and Korea, were a turning point that fundamentally changed the society of the time. The autocratic power of the great king and the expansion of the Yamato government's control over the regions, which became evident from the second half of the 5th century, were made possible by the mastery of these immigrant technologies. The immigrants of this period were collectively organized by the Hata and Han clans into the organizations of the Yamato government.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

The Qin and Han

The Hata clan is said to have originated from Yuzuki no Kimi, who came to Japan during the reign of Emperor Ojin leading a group of peasants from 120 prefectures, but it is believed that they were originally from a small country in the Uljin region of North Gyeongsang Province, Korea. They established their base in Yamashiro, established and developed irrigation facilities there, and engaged in agriculture, sericulture, and weaving, becoming prosperous as a productive clan. From the time of Emperor Yūryaku's reign, they served as government officials in the Yamato government, and as Tomo no Miyatsuko, they organized the local Silla immigrants known as the "people of Hata" into clans and controlled them, paying tribute to their produce and having the clan's Kurabe (storehouse) manage it, and in the 6th century they came to play a part in the finances of the Yamato government. The Han clan is said to have descended from Achi no Omi, who came to Japan during the reign of Emperor Ojin with the "17 provinces of his clan," but it is believed that the clan, who was the chief of Arah (Aya) in South Gyeongsang Province, migrated to the Japanese archipelago as a group. They lived in Hinokuma, Takechi County, Yamato, and later, as their population increased, they dispersed to other provinces. Records from the late 8th century state that Takechi County was filled with the Han clan, with only "one or two out of ten" people with other surnames. From the time of the reign of Emperor Yūryaku, a group of Baekje-originated handicraft craftsmen such as the Nishigoribe, Kuratukuribe, Asuka no Kinunui, Akunami, Kanatsukuri, and Karakanuchi, among others, became officials of the Yamato government, leading newly arrived immigrants engaged in the production of iron, weapons, and textiles.

The Yamato government's establishment of the Hata and Han clans as official officials marked the beginning of the establishment of the Tomo system as an administrative organization and the Bemin system as a method of local rule, and marked a turning point in the creation of the Yamato government's political organization.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

Carriers of advanced culture

The activities of immigrants were also important in terms of culture. The start of the use of writing marked a major turning point from primitive times to civilization, but it was immigrants in the period (2) who introduced writing to Japan, and as the Yamato government's foreign negotiations became more active, they were responsible for preparing diplomatic documents, among other important duties. Buddhism was introduced from Baekje in the period (3), and the people who carried Buddhism in its early stages were immigrants such as the Han clan, and monks such as Dosho and Gyoki, who were active during the Nara period, also came from immigrant clans. In terms of art, Kurashukuri no Tori (Tori Buddhist sculptor), a representative Buddhist sculptor of the Asuka period, was of immigrant descent. Other important facts to note are that immigrants from Korea brought with them knowledge and technology such as Confucianism, calendar systems, medicine, ink, and paper, and that their descendants, such as Takamuko Kuromaro and the monk Min, accompanied Japanese envoys to Sui in the 7th century and studied there, making great contributions to the introduction of China's advanced culture.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

From the 8th century onwards

As the ritsuryo state was completed and Sinocentrism rose among the ruling class, the Korean nations were positioned as "various foreigners" in opposition to "China," and the descendants of previous immigrants were considered "naturalized" people and were distinguished from native Japanese clans by their clan names and surnames. However, in the real world of politics, society, and daily life, they had already assimilated into the Japanese. In the Shinsen Shojiroku, a list of clans living in Kyoto and Kinai compiled in the early 9th century, native Japanese clans are classified as "divinely affiliated" or "imperially affiliated," while immigrant clans are lumped together under the "various foreigners" section. The number of such clans accounts for more than one-third of the total, showing how many immigrants existed.

[Teruo Kikuchi]

"Naturalized People" by Akira Seki (1956, Shibundo)" ▽ "Migrants" by Masaaki Ueda (Chuko Shinsho)" ▽ "Migrants" by Mitsuro Inoue (1987, Libroport)

[Reference items] | Han family | Zhuban | Qin family

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

主として古代に朝鮮・中国より日本に移住してきた人々の総称。その子孫をも含めて用いる場合もある。従来「帰化人(きかじん)」ともいわれたが、近年の日朝関係史や古代史の研究を通して「帰化人」の呼称を用いることの弊が説かれるようになり、かわって「渡来人」の語が使用されるようになり、今日定着している。

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「帰化人」史観の問題点

「帰化」という語は、もともと古代中国の中華思想に基づき、周辺の異民族が中国帝王の王化を慕って帰順し、その国家的秩序に従うことを意味したが、7世紀末～8世紀に中国の国家制度に倣って律令(りつりょう)国家を樹立した日本の支配層は、同時にそのような中華思想も受容して、それ以前に海外から日本に移住してきた人々をすべて天皇の徳を慕って「帰化」したものとみなした。すなわち、古代の渡来者を一括して「帰化人」と称するのは律令国家支配層の歴史観に基づく見方であって、7世紀以前の日本列島にまだ帰化すべき国家の確立していない段階の渡来者に用いる歴史用語としてはふさわしくない。また「帰化」の語は、今日においても外国人の日本国籍取得を意味する法律用語として用いられるが、明治以降の「帰化人」の多くが朝鮮人・中国人であり、これらの人々を日本人と異なる、差別・蔑視(べっし)されるべき人々とする偏見が、日本の朝鮮・中国に対する植民地支配・侵略の思想的背景にあった。古代の渡来者を「帰化人」とみる歴史観は、このような東アジア近隣への日本の支配を歴史的に遡及(そきゅう)させて正当化していこうとする誤った観念に陥りやすいという指摘も考慮されるべきであろう。

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渡来の時期

渡来人が朝鮮などから移住してきた時期については、おおよそ次の四つの段階を設定することができる。（1）紀元前2世紀～紀元後3世紀　この時期、西日本各地に朝鮮系の土器が出土し、また墓制からも相当数の渡来人集団の活動が認められる。弥生(やよい)文化の成立・展開はこのような渡来人のもたらした稲作技術、金属工芸などの外来技術の伝播(でんぱ)を契機とする。（2）5世紀　高句麗好太王碑文(こうくりこうたいおうひぶん)などにみられるように、この時期倭(わ)（大和(やまと)政権）の対外活動が活発化し、それに見合った形でおもに朝鮮からの渡来人が顕著となった。『古事記』『日本書紀』の伝承でも、応神(おうじん)朝に比定されるこの時期に、漢(あや)氏、秦(はた)氏、西文(かわちのふみ)氏などの祖先が渡来したことを記している。（3）5世紀後半～6世紀　（2）の段階を受けて、雄略(ゆうりゃく)朝～欽明(きんめい)朝にかけて、朝鮮南部の百済(くだら)・加羅(から)（任那(みまな)）から「今来(いまき)の才伎(てひと)」といわれる先進技術をもった人々が移住してきた。当時朝鮮半島南部は朝鮮諸国が大和政権も巻き込んで抗争しており、その戦地となった地域の人々が首長級豪族に率いられて集団的に渡来したものとみられている。（4）7世紀後半　百済・高句麗の滅亡に伴い、王族・貴族をはじめとして多くの人々が亡命した。なかには日本の政府の高官となる者もいた。

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大和政権と渡来人

以上の四つの段階のうち、とくに（2）（3）の時期の渡来人の活動は、日本の古代国家形成史、社会発達史のうえでたいへん大きな意義をもつ。この時期の渡来人がもたらした武器・農具などの鉄器鋳造技術の革新、新たな土器製作・機織(はたお)り技術の伝播は、大和政権の政治力・軍事力・生産力の発展に寄与し、かつ交通網の発達や交易圏の拡大にも役だった。また中国・朝鮮系の乾田系農業技術や雑穀栽培などは、当時の社会を根本から変質させるような大画期となった。5世紀後半から顕著になる大王権力の専制化や大和政権の地方支配の伸長も、このような渡来人の技術を掌握することで可能となった。この時期の渡来人は、秦氏・漢氏に総括されて大和政権の組織に編成されていった。

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秦氏と漢氏

秦氏は、応神朝に「百二十県(あがた)の百姓(ひゃくせい)」を率いて渡来した弓月君(ゆづきのきみ)を祖とするという伝承をもつが、その出身は、朝鮮慶尚北道の蔚珍(ウルチン)地方の小国の豪族であったと推定される。本拠を山背(やましろ)に構え、その地に灌漑(かんがい)施設を設けて開発し、農業・養蚕・機織りを行い、いわば殖産的な豪族として繁栄した。雄略朝ころから大和政権に官人として仕え、他面伴造(とものみやつこ)として地方の「秦の民」とよばれる新羅(しらぎ)系の渡来人を部(べ)に編成して支配し、その生産物を貢納して一族の蔵部(くらべ)に管掌させ、6世紀には大和政権の財政の一翼を担う地位についた。漢氏は、応神朝に「党類十七県」を率いて渡来した阿知使主(あちのおみ)を祖とすると伝えるが、実際は慶尚南道の安羅(あら)（安邪(あや)）の首長をしていた一族が集団で日本列島へ移住したものとみられる。大和の高市(たけち)郡檜前(ひのくま)の地に住み、のちに人口が増えて改めて諸国に分散した。8世紀後半の記録には、高市郡は漢氏で満ち、他姓のものは「十中に一、二」にすぎないと記している。雄略朝ころから錦部(にしごりべ)、鞍作部(くらつくりべ)、飛鳥衣縫(あすかのきぬぬい)、飽波(あくなみ)、金作(かなつくり)、韓鍛冶(からのかぬち)などの百済系の手工業者集団、それも製鉄や武器や織物の生産に従事する新来の渡来人を率いる大和政権の官人となった。

　このような大和政権による秦氏、漢氏の官人化は、行政機構としてのトモ制、地方支配の方式としての部民(べみん)制の成立の端緒となり、大和政権の政治組織創出の画期となった。

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先進文化の担い手

渡来人の活動は文化の面でも重要である。文字の使用開始は未開から文明への大きな画期となるが、日本に文字を伝えたのは（2）の時期の渡来人で、大和政権の対外交渉の活発化のなかで外交文書作成などは彼らの重要な職掌であった。（3）の時期には仏教が百済から伝来するが、初期の仏教を担った人々は漢氏などの渡来人で、また奈良時代に活躍した道昭(どうしょう)、行基(ぎょうき)といった僧の出身も渡来系の氏族であった。芸術面においては飛鳥(あすか)時代の代表的な仏師鞍作鳥(くらつくりのとり)（止利(とり)仏師）は渡来系の出身である。そのほか儒教・暦法・医術・墨・紙などの知識・技術を朝鮮からの渡来人がもたらし、さらに高向玄理(たかむこのくろまろ)、僧旻(みん)など渡来人の子孫が、7世紀遣隋使(けんずいし)に従って隋に留学し、中国の先進文化導入に多大な尽力を果たしていることも見逃せない。

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8世紀以降

律令国家の完成に伴い支配者層の間に中華思想が高まるなかで、朝鮮諸国は「中華」に対する「諸蕃」と位置づけられ、前代の渡来者の後裔(こうえい)は「帰化」した人々とみなされるようになり、氏族名・姓(かばね)などによって日本在来の氏族と区別された。しかし現実の政治・社会・日常生活のなかでは、すでに彼らは日本人に同化していた。9世紀初頭に編集された京・畿内(きない)に居住する氏族のリストである『新撰姓氏録(しんせんしょうじろく)』では、日本在来の氏族を「神別」「皇別」に分類するのに対し、渡来系氏族を「諸蕃」の項に一括しているが、その氏族数は全体の3分の1以上にも及んでおり、いかに多くの渡来系の人々が存在していたかを知ることができる。

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『関晃著『帰化人』（1956・至文堂）』▽『上田正昭著『渡来人』（中公新書）』▽『井上満郎著『渡来人』（1987・リブロポート）』

[参照項目] | 漢氏 | 諸蕃 | 秦氏

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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