Urban climate - Toshikikou (English spelling)

Japanese: 都市気候 - としきこう(英語表記)urban climate
Urban climate - Toshikikou (English spelling)

A climate unique to cities. In urban areas, the increase in artificial heat from population concentration and the artificial ground surface (concrete buildings, asphalt roads, etc.) have resulted in the heat island phenomenon, where temperatures are higher, and dryness is more pronounced than in the surrounding suburbs and rural areas. In large cities in developed countries such as Europe, the United States, and Japan, air pollution from factory smoke and automobile exhaust gases progressed from the 1950s to the 1970s, and the reduction in sunlight and poor visibility due to smog (urban haze) became serious social problems, but since the 1990s, strict legal regulations to prevent air pollution have improved the situation considerably. Meanwhile, in developing countries in Asia, the rapid increase in energy consumption due to the rapid development of economic activity has caused serious air pollution problems.

Urban climates vary depending on the size of the city and its geographic location, but generally the more populous a city is, the more pronounced its climate is. Even in the same city, urban climate phenomena are intensified as the population increases over time and urban activity becomes more active. For example, in Tokyo, one of the world's largest cities, significant changes can be seen between the 30 years of the Meiji era (1881-1910) and the 30 years of the Showa and Heisei eras (1981-2010), as shown below.

●Examples of urban climate change in central Tokyo [1881-1910]
Average temperature: 13.7℃
Relative humidity: 75%
Precipitation: 1495 mm Winter days: 66.6 days Tropical nights: 1.3 days Midsummer days: 30.5 days Extremely hot days: 0.2 days

[1981-2010] (Changes from 1881-1910)
Average temperature: 16.3℃ (+2.6℃)
Relative humidity: 62% (-13%)
Precipitation: 1,529 mm (+2%)
Winter days: 5.7 days (1/12)
Tropical nights: 27.8 days (21x)
Midsummer days: 48.5 days (1.6 times)
Extremely hot days: 3.2 days (16 times)
(Note: Based on statistical data from the Japan Meteorological Agency website)
The figure shows that the average temperature has risen significantly, the relative humidity has fallen, and precipitation has increased slightly. The number of winter days with early morning minimum temperatures below 0°C has decreased dramatically, while the number of tropical nights with minimum temperatures of 25°C or above has increased dramatically. As for summer daytime maximum temperatures, it is noteworthy that there has been a sharp increase in midsummer days with maximum temperatures of over 30°C and extremely hot days with maximum temperatures of over 35°C.

Furthermore, since the 1980s, localized heavy rains have suddenly occurred in summer afternoons in large cities such as Tokyo, causing damage such as flooding of roads and inundation of houses, and these are called "guerilla downpours" and have attracted social attention. One of the causes of this is thought to be the heat island phenomenon in urban climates, which occurs when the heat of cities in unstable atmospheric weather conditions intensifies the development of cumulonimbus clouds, and sometimes localized heavy rains exceeding 50 millimeters per hour occur.

[Takehiko Mikami October 20, 2015]

"Heat Island" by Toshio Ojima (2002, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)""Heat Island Countermeasures and Technology" edited by Masakazu Moriyama (2004, Gakugei Publishing)""Why does torrential rain occur in cities? -- The true nature of heavy rain that is neither a typhoon nor a front" by Takehiko Mikami (2008, Gijutsu Hyoronsha)" ▽ "Two types of warming -- Global warming and heat islands" edited by Kenji Kai (2012, Seizando Shoten)" ▽ "Climate change and abnormal weather in cities -- Regarding extreme heat and heavy rain" by Fumiaki Fujibe (2012, Asakura Shoten)

[References] | Guerrilla rainstorms | Artificial climate | Air pollution | Heat island

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

都市に特有の気候。都市域では、人口集中による人工排熱の増加と地表面の人工化(コンクリート建造物、アスファルト道路など)によって、周辺の郊外・農村地帯に比べて、気温が高くなるヒートアイランド現象や乾燥化などが顕著に認められる。欧米や日本など、先進国の大都市では、1950年代から1970年代にかけて工場からの煤煙(ばいえん)や自動車の排気ガスなどによる大気汚染が進み、スモッグ(都市の煙霧)による日射量の減少や視程の悪化が深刻な社会問題となったが、1990年代以降は大気汚染防止に関する厳しい法的規制によってかなり改善された。一方、アジアの開発途上国では、飛躍的な経済活動の進展によるエネルギー消費量の急増が、深刻な大気汚染問題を引き起こしている。

 都市気候は、都市の規模やその地理的位置によって差が生じるが、一般に人口が多い大都市ほど顕著になる。また、同一の都市でも、時代とともに人口が増加して都市活動が盛んになると、都市気候の現象が強化される。たとえば、世界有数の大都市である東京を例にとると、明治期の30年間(1881~1910年)と昭和・平成期の30年間(1981~2010年)では、以下に示すような顕著な変化が認められる。

●東京都心部における都市気候の変化の例
【1881~1910年】
 平均気温:13.7℃
 相対湿度:75%
 降水量:1495ミリメートル
 冬日:66.6日
 熱帯夜:1.3日
 真夏日:30.5日
 猛暑日:0.2日

【1981~2010年】(1881~1910年からの変化)
 平均気温:16.3℃(+2.6℃)
 相対湿度:62%(-13%)
 降水量:1529ミリメートル(+2%)
 冬日:5.7日(12分の1)
 熱帯夜:27.8日(21倍)
 真夏日:48.5日(1.6倍)
 猛暑日:3.2日(16倍)
(注:気象庁ホームページの統計データによる)
 これをみると、平均気温の上昇と相対湿度の低下が著しく、降水量は若干増加している。明け方の最低気温が0℃未満の冬日は激減する一方、夜間の最低気温が25℃以上の熱帯夜は激増している。夏季日中の最高気温については、30℃以上の真夏日の増加や35℃以上の猛暑日の激増が注目される。

 また、1980年代以降、東京などの大都市では、夏季の午後に突然局地的な豪雨が発生し、道路が冠水したり住宅が浸水したりする被害にみまわれることがあり、「ゲリラ豪雨」ともよばれて社会的な関心も高い。これは、都市気候におけるヒートアイランド現象もその一因と考えられており、大気の不安定な気象状態における都市の高温化が積乱雲の発達を強めることによりおこるが、ときとして1時間に50ミリメートルを超える局地的な豪雨が発生することもある。

[三上岳彦 2015年10月20日]

『尾島俊雄著『ヒートアイランド』(2002・東洋経済新報社)』『森山正和編『ヒートアイランドの対策と技術』(2004・学芸出版社)』『三上岳彦著『都市型集中豪雨はなぜ起こる?――台風でも前線でもない大雨の正体』(2008・技術評論社)』『甲斐憲次編著『二つの温暖化――地球温暖化とヒートアイランド』(2012・成山堂書店)』『藤部文昭著『都市の気候変動と異常気象――猛暑と大雨をめぐって』(2012・朝倉書店)』

[参照項目] | ゲリラ豪雨 | 人工気候 | 大気汚染 | ヒートアイランド

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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