Tohoku region

Japanese: 東北地方 - とうほくちほう

This region occupies the northeastern part of Honshu and consists of six prefectures: Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima. It faces Hokkaido to the north across the Tsugaru Strait, borders the Kanto region to the south, and the Chubu region to the southwest. Around the time of the Taika Reforms (645), it was called Michinoku Province, meaning the interior of Japan from the center of the country, and later came to be written as Mutsu Province. After the establishment of Dewa Province (712), the two were sometimes collectively called Ouu or Oshu. The name Tohoku Region came into use after the Meiji period. Niigata Prefecture is sometimes included in the Tohoku Region from the perspective of administrative and regional development. Among the northeastern regions of Japan, Hokkaido was recently developed and has no old traditions or traditions. Since the modern era, however, it has seen rapid development in industry and culture. On the other hand, the Tohoku region has been developed since ancient times, and although the Hiraizumi culture of the Fujiwara clan flourished at one time, it has suffered from cold weather damage and poor harvests from early modern times to the present day, and has had a difficult history. As Japan's modernization progressed, the Tohoku region was slow to industrialize, with a bias toward primary industries such as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, and was unable to escape its backwardness of providing food and labor. After World War II, agriculture in the Tohoku region underwent a major transformation, triggered by land reform, and the effectiveness of various policies under the National Comprehensive Development Plan also increased, and modern industry gradually took root. As a result, the future potential of the Tohoku region was evaluated higher than that of the central regions, which were suffering from over-concentration of population and industry, and even the idea of moving the capital to the Tohoku region was advocated.

The Tohoku region has an area of 66,950 square kilometers, accounting for 17.7% of the total area of Japan (2006), and a population of approximately 9.63 million (2005), accounting for 7.5% of Japan's total population. The population density is 143.9 people per square kilometer, less than half the national average of 338.1 people. There are 286 municipalities (as of October 2005), of which 73 are cities. Sendai, which became a government-designated city in 1989, is where the administrative functions of the six Tohoku prefectures are concentrated, with a population of 1.02 million. Other cities with populations exceeding 200,000 include the prefectural capitals of Aomori, Morioka, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima, and the three industrial cities of Hachinohe, Koriyama, and Iwaki. Many of the cities in the Tohoku region developed from castle towns, port towns, or market towns. With the exception of the industrial cities of Kamaishi and Koriyama, which developed after the Meiji period, and cities such as Iwanuma, Natori, and Tagajyo, which have a strong residential character around Sendai, the structure of urban layout from the early modern period is still followed to this day, providing an insight into the slow industrial development of the Tohoku region.

[Norio Hasegawa]

Nature

The long, narrow Tohoku region stretches from north to south and is topographically divided into six topographical regions, consisting of three mountain ranges and three lowlands aligned north to south. On the Pacific coast lies the eastern mountain region of the Kitakami and Abukuma highlands, and in the center lies the folded Ou Mountains, parallel to which runs the Nasu volcanic belt. Between these lie the Kitakami and Abukuma river valley plains and the Sendai plain. On the Japan Sea coast lies the Dewa Mountains, the Echigo Mountains, and the Chokai volcanic belt, and between these and the Ou Mountains lie a series of basins, including Hirosaki, Odate, Yokote, Shinjo, Yamagata, Yonezawa, and Aizu. The coastal plains of Tsugaru, Noshiro, Akita, and Shonai are located on the Japan Sea side. The Ou Mountains are a great watershed that divides the Tohoku region into east and west, but the overall north-south linear topography has had a variety of influences on the region's climate and transportation network. The topographical features of the Tohoku region have given rise to many different landscapes. The ria coast on the Pacific coast is home to Sanriku Fukko National Park (formerly Rikuchu Kaigan National Park and formerly Minamisanriku Kinkazan Quasi-National Park), and the Ou Mountains and Dewa Mountains, rich in volcanoes and hot springs, are home to Towada-Hachimantai, Bandai-Asahi, Nikko, and Oze National Parks, as well as Zao and Kurikoma Quasi-National Parks. The Shirakami Mountains, which straddle Aomori and Akita prefectures, were registered as a World Heritage Site (natural heritage) in 1993.

The Tohoku region, located next to Hokkaido in the north, has a low average annual temperature, recorded at 9.7°C in Aomori City in the north and 12.9°C in Onahama, Iwaki City in the south, with a difference of 3.2°C due to the long north-south distance. The temperature difference between the north and south is somewhat noticeable in winter, but there is almost no difference in summer. However, there is a clear difference in climate between the Pacific Ocean side and the Sea of Japan side of the Ou Mountains, and especially during the winter when the northwest monsoon prevails, the Sea of Japan side has a contrasting climate with heavy snowfall and dryness on the Pacific side, but in summer the central basin chain and the plains of the Japan coast are actually hotter than the Pacific coast, and these high summer temperatures are a major factor supporting rice cultivation in the Tohoku region. In general, spring comes late and summer is short in the Tohoku region, but in the northeastern Pacific side, northeasterly winds called "Yamase" can prevail from spring to summer due to the influence of the Okhotsk air mass, and the lack of sunlight and low temperatures can cause damage to crops.

The Tohoku region as a whole belongs to the temperate plant zone, with representative tree species being deciduous broadleaf trees such as horse chestnut, chestnut, katsura, walnut, and white birch, and conifers such as cypress, asaro, and larch. The warm-climate evergreen tree Machilus thunbergii is found as far north as central Iwate Prefecture on the Pacific coast and as far southwestern Aomori Prefecture on the Japan Sea coast, forming its northern limit of natural growth. Aomori Prefecture is also the northern limit for Camellia japonica, Okera japonica, and Pulsatilla quinata. Alpine plants are abundant in the mountainous areas around 2,000 meters above sea level, and there are habitats for them in each mountain range. As for cultivated plants, the northern limit for cultivation of bamboo passes through Aomori Prefecture, and that of tea passes through Miyagi Prefecture.

[Norio Hasegawa]

industry

Looking at the employment rate by industry (1995), the primary industry was 12.9%, the secondary industry 31.0%, and the tertiary industry 55.9%, which is higher than the national averages of 6.1%, 31.4%, and 61.9%, respectively, for the primary industry and the tertiary industry. However, the primary industry ratio has been declining year by year. Looking at the prefectural net product, the primary industry ratio is even lower, and the large weight of the low-productivity primary industry is the reason why the distributed income per capita in the Tohoku prefectures is limited to 52.3-60.7% of Tokyo's (1993).

The total cultivated land area of the six Tohoku prefectures was 941,000 hectares (1995), accounting for 18.7% of the national total. Of this, rice paddies (including ordinary and special rice paddies) accounted for 70.1%, or 24.0% of the national total. Miyagi, Akita, and Yamagata prefectures have a particularly high ratio of rice paddies, and they have become Japan's grain-producing regions thanks to improvements in cultivation techniques, improved varieties, and mechanization of agricultural work. Field crops include vegetables, fruit trees, beans, wheat, and tobacco, and among fruit trees, apples in Aomori Prefecture, peaches in Fukushima and Yamagata Prefectures, and grapes and cherries in Yamagata Prefecture account for a large proportion of the national total. In the Tohoku region, farmers are increasingly taking on multiple occupations, and in 1994, only 10.1% of the total number of commercial farmers were full-time farmers, while full-time farmers accounted for 27.3% according to the new classification (full-time farmers, semi-full-time farmers, and secondary full-time farmers) in 1995. Meanwhile, the prefectures of Aomori, Iwate, Akita and Yamagata are known for having a large number of migrant farm workers, and of the part-time workers in 1993, the number of those who were primarily engaged in this work in the Tohoku region numbered 41,000, with the number of day and temporary workers reaching 203,000.

The total forest land area was 4.655 million hectares (1990), covering approximately 70% of the entire Tohoku region. In particular, Aomori's hiba, Akita's cedar, and Iwate's red pine are known for their high-quality timber, and beech trees are also cut down in various areas.

Cold and warm currents collide off the coast of Sanriku, and the area is also home to the North Pacific salmon and trout fishing grounds, making fishing particularly active in the three prefectures on the Pacific coast of Aomori, Iwate, and Miyagi. The total catch in the Tohoku region reached 1.247 million tons (1994), accounting for 13.4% of the national total. Large catches of mackerel, Alaska pollock, flounder, tuna, bonito, pacific saury, squid, and other fish are landed at fishing ports such as Hachinohe, Miyako, Ofunato, Kesennuma, Onagawa, Ishinomaki, Shiogama, and Onahama. Well-known aquaculture products include scallops in Mutsu Bay, coho salmon, scallops, nori, wakame, oysters, and sea squirts in the bays along the Sanriku coast, and oysters in Matsushima Bay.

The Tohoku region was once rich in underground resources, and the Tertiary green tuff of the Ou Mountains and the igneous rocks that run through it are home to deposits of gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, and other minerals. Famous deposits include copper in Kosaka and Osarizawa in Akita Prefecture, lead and zinc in Hosokura in Miyagi Prefecture, sulfur in Matsuo in Iwate Prefecture, iron ore in Kamaishi in Iwate Prefecture, crude oil in Yabase in Akita Prefecture, and the Joban coalfields in Fukushima Prefecture. However, many mines were closed after World War II due to the exhaustion of ore veins, the increase in imported ore, and problems with profitability. Currently, the main metal mines include Hanaoka, Shakanai, and Kosaka in Akita Prefecture. Some of the closed mines, such as Hosokura and Osarizawa, still have their appearance as mine parks and mining museums.

In 1994, the total value of industrial product shipments in the six Tohoku prefectures was 16,144.8 billion yen, just 5.4% of the national total, with Fukushima and Miyagi prefectures accounting for 52.6% of this. Traditionally, industries in the Tohoku region were mostly resource-based, relying on the resources produced in the area. There are the cement industry in Hachinohe and Ofunato, the pulp industry in Akita, the steel industry in Kamaishi, the chemical fertilizer industry in Miyako, and the fishery processing industry in the port cities, as well as special steel and electric smelting industries that make use of abundant power sources. In recent years, industries that use imported raw materials, such as chemicals, metals, petroleum refining, non-ferrous metals, and paper and pulp, have been based behind port cities such as Onahama, Sendai, Hachinohe, Akita, and Sakata, and factories of electrical equipment and textile products that rely on rural labor have also been expanding into various areas. However, the industries that stand out in the top positions in terms of manufacturing shipment value are electrical equipment manufacturing and food manufacturing, followed by beverages and feed, general machinery, metal products, ceramics, earthenware, and chemical products, and other manufacturing industries.Although there is a trend toward diversification, it cannot be said that the country has yet fully broken away from its traditional reliance on resources and labor.

[Norio Hasegawa]

traffic

The mountain ranges running parallel from north to south dominate the transportation network. JR's main lines include the Tohoku Main Line, which opened in 1891 (Meiji 24), which runs north to south, as well as the Joban Line, Ou Main Line, and Uetsu Main Line. The Hanawa Line, Tazawako Line, Kitakami Line, Rikuu East Line, Senzan Line, and Ban'etsu West Line cross the Ou Mountains, while the Yamada Line, Kamaishi Line, and Ofunato Line cross the Kitakami Highlands, the Ban'etsu East Line and Suigun Line cross the Abukuma Highlands, and the Rikuu West Line, Yonesaka Line, and Ban'etsu West Line cross the Dewa Mountains and Echigo Mountains, connecting the plains and basins. As part of the rationalization measures of the national railways, the Kuji, Sakari, and Miyako lines were transferred to the third-sector Sanriku Railway, and the Marumori line was transferred to the Abukuma Express. The Ohata line was closed in 2001 after being privatized. Some lines, such as the Nicchu and Kuroishi lines, were converted to bus transport. The Miyako-Kamaishi section of the Yamada line was heavily damaged in the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011, and there was no prospect of recovery for a long time, so buses were used as alternative transport, but it was transferred to Sanriku Railway in March 2019 and began operations. Furthermore, with the opening of the Tohoku Shinkansen between Morioka and Hachinohe (2002) and between Hachinohe and Shin-Aomori (2010), the Morioka-Aomori section of the Tohoku Main Line was transferred to the third-sector IGR Iwate Galaxy Railway (Iwate Prefecture section) and the third-sector Aoimori Railway (Aomori Prefecture section). Construction of the Tohoku Shinkansen, begun in 1971 in response to the age of high-speed transportation, opened between Omiya and Morioka in June 1982, and extended to Tokyo Station in 1991. Mini-shinkansen trains also crossed the Tohoku region between Fukushima and Shinjo, and between Morioka and Akita, using conventional railway lines. Meanwhile, the Seikan Tunnel opened in 1988, directly linking Hokkaido, Tohoku, and the Tokyo metropolitan area, ushering in a new era for rail transportation. Many of the main national highways run parallel to railways, but many of the national highways that run east-west cut through difficult mountainous areas. The Tohoku Expressway, which connects the capital with the Tohoku region, has been opened between Kawaguchi Junction and Aomori, the Hachinohe Expressway between Ashiro Junction and Hachinohe Kita, and the Joban Expressway between Misato Junction and Watari. Crossing roads include the Akita Expressway (between Kitakami Junction and Futatsui-Shirakami, and between Odate-Noshiro Airport and Kosaka), the Ban'etsu Expressway (between Iwaki Junction and Niigata Chuo), and the Yamagata Expressway (between Murata Junction and Gassan, and Yudono-san and Tsuruoka Junction).

As for cargo transport by sea, industrial raw materials, products, and miscellaneous goods are transported in and out of major ports such as Onahama, Sendai, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Kamaishi, Miyako, Hachinohe, Aomori, Akita, and Sakata. Medium- and long-distance ferries operate on the Seikan route, as well as between Sendai, Hachinohe and Tomakomai, and between Sendai and Nagoya.

In terms of air transportation, there are airports in Aomori, Misawa, Akita, Odate/Noshiro, Hanamaki, Yamagata, Shonai, Sendai, and Fukushima, with direct connections to Sapporo, Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other cities, and there are regular international flights to Aomori, Hanamaki, and Sendai.

[Norio Hasegawa]

development

Since the early modern period, the Tohoku region has seen active development of new fields, and various construction works, such as the major river repair work of the Sendai Domain (Miyagi Prefecture), the construction of irrigation channels such as the Kazumazeki Weir, the Juan Weir (Iwate Prefecture), and the Asakasosui Canal (Fukushima Prefecture), and the reclamation of Sanbongihara (Aomori Prefecture), were carried out up until the Meiji period. The Meiji government attempted to build a modern port in Nobiru (Miyagi Prefecture) in 1878 (Meiji 11) as a base for the development of Tohoku, and developed a road network, but after the damage to the outer port facilities in 1884, the construction of a Western-style port was transferred to Nagasaki, and the government's interest shifted from the development of Tohoku to the development of Hokkaido. As a result, from the Meiji and Taisho periods until the end of World War II, the Tohoku region had to be content with its position as a supplier of food, labor, and soldiers. During this period, policies such as land reclamation to deal with the second and third sons in rural areas and the Tohoku Revitalization Plan in the early Showa period were implemented, but these did not eliminate the backwardness of the Tohoku region.

In 1950, after the Second World War, specific regions were designated under the National Comprehensive Development Law, which aimed to develop and preserve the devastated land and achieve economic independence. In the Tohoku region, four regions were designated: Kitakami, Ani-Tazawa, Mogami, and Tadami. Three more regions were subsequently added: Towada-Iwakigawa, Kita-Ou, and Senen. Senen's goal was to develop an industrial base, while the other three regions were based on disaster prevention and resource development, and multipurpose dams were constructed in various locations for flood prevention, power generation, irrigation, etc. In addition, the so-called three Tohoku Development Laws, the Tohoku Development Promotion Law, the Tohoku Development Corporation Law, and the Hokkaido-Tohoku Development Public Finance Law, were enacted in 1957, allowing financial assistance to be provided for the development of the Tohoku region. However, the results were not satisfactory. In 1963, the government designated new industrial cities based on the National Comprehensive Development Plan, and aimed to disperse population and industry. In Tohoku, Hachinohe, Sendai Bay, and Joban Koriyama were designated in 1977, and Akita Bay was added later. Port construction and industrial land development were carried out. The New National Comprehensive Development Plan of 1968 positioned the Tohoku region as a major urban outskirts area extending north from the capital region, and linked it to the capital region through the Tohoku Shinkansen and Tohoku Expressway using a central development method with Sendai at its core. It also characterized the Tohoku region as a food supply base, and designated the Mutsu Ogawara area as a large-scale industrial development base. The 1977 oil crisis was the catalyst for the Third National Comprehensive Development Plan, which was formulated to deal with a period of stable economic growth. Based on this plan, six model settlement areas were established in the six Tohoku prefectures in 1980. The Fourth Comprehensive National Development Plan of 1987 set the basic goal of forming a multi-polar, decentralized national land structure, and the Fifth Plan that succeeded this was called the "Grand Design for the 21st Century" according to a government proposal in 1998, proposing a shift to a multi-axis national land structure. In the Tohoku region, the Northeast Land Axis and the Japan Sea Land Axis are to be developed as regional cooperation axes, and it calls for the development of urban functions open to the world, centering on Sendai, and the strengthening of living and cultural environments in harmony with nature, as well as tourism and recreational functions. It is also expected from this perspective that the capital functions will be transferred to the Tohoku region.

[Norio Hasegawa]

population

The total population of the six Tohoku prefectures increased from approximately 9.34 million in 1950 to approximately 9.84 million in 1995, before declining to 9.63 million in 2005. However, five-year statistics up until 1995 show that after an increase of 230,000 between 1950 and 1955, the population continued to decline until 1970, finally increasing by 200,000 in 1975, reaching 9.57 million in 1980 and 9.74 million in 1990. During this period, only Miyagi prefecture saw a consistent increase, while the other five prefectures only began to increase after 1975. The Tohoku region's share of the national population gradually declined from 10.5% in 1955 to 8.1% in 1980, 7.8% in 1995, and 7.5% in 2005, indicating a significant outflow of population during this period. Population growth is most noticeable in prefectural capitals such as Sendai, major industrial cities, and the cities surrounding Sendai that serve as residential areas. The causes of this population growth include the location of industries in the cities and the concentration of tertiary industries, but overall, a decrease in population outflow and a natural increase in population are also contributing factors. However, the population of rural areas continues to decline, and it cannot be said that depopulated areas or the depopulation phenomenon have been resolved.

[Norio Hasegawa]

history

It is not clear when humans first settled in the Tohoku region. However, chipped stone tools, Jomon pottery, and Yayoi pottery have been excavated in various parts of Japan, and it is clear that indigenous peoples also lived in the Tohoku region. Huge wooden pillars and other artifacts dating back about 4,500 years have been excavated from the Sannai Maruyama Site in the west of Aomori City, and are thought to be the remains of a large settlement from the early to middle Jomon period. It is believed that rice paddy agriculture was practiced mainly in the Sendai Plain around the 2nd to 3rd centuries. The Emishi people who lived in this region came under the control of the Yamato state. After the Taika Reforms, the Ritsuryo state established a system of provinces and counties, and the area came to be called Dooku Province, and development by soldiers and farmers was vigorously promoted. Then, when the Taiho Ritsuryo Code was established (701), the name was changed to Mutsu Province, and it became part of the Tosando Road along with Dewa Province on the Sea of Japan side.

During the Nara period, Taga Castle (Miyagi Prefecture) and Akita Castle were built as bases for managing the Emishi, and Hotta Fortress and Shikamanoki Fortress were built along the line connecting them. An assimilation policy was implemented against the Emishi, but toward the end of the Nara period, the Emishi rebelled in various places, and the Shogun Sakanoue no Tamuramaro was dispatched to subjugate them. He captured the Emishi's base in Isawa (Oshu City), and built Isawa Castle and Shiwa Castle. In the 11th century, powerful clans such as the Abe, Kiyohara, and Fujiwara clans rose to power, but the Abe clan was destroyed by Minamoto no Yoriyoshi and the Kiyohara clan by Minamoto no Yoshiie. The Fujiwara clan, which had prospered in Hiraizumi for three generations, was also destroyed in 1189 (Bun'ei 5) when Minamoto no Yoritomo attacked Oshu. After that, the Tohoku region became subordinate to the Kamakura shogunate, and Kamakura samurai such as the Chiba, Kasai, and Hatakeyama clans gained territory in the Tohoku region. From the end of the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, the area became a battleground for many warlords, but during the Sengoku period, the Date clan became the leading daimyo in Oshu. After the Battle of Sekigahara, the Tohoku region came under the strict control of the Edo Shogunate, with feudal lords such as the Tsugaru clan (Aomori), Satake clan (Akita), Nanbu clan (Iwate), Date clan (Miyagi and Iwate), Matsudaira clan (Fukushima), and Uesugi clan (Yamagata) stationed there. Castle towns were built and new fields were developed, and many post towns developed along the main routes to and from Edo. Notable industries included the copper mines of Kosaka and Ani in the Akita domain, steelmaking and horse breeding in the Morioka domain, and sericulture and textiles in the Aizu and Yonezawa domains.

During the Meiji Restoration, the various feudal domains formed the Oshu-Uetsu Reppan Alliance to oppose the Oshu Chinbuushi, but this ended tragically and they were branded as rebel forces. This became a major hindrance to the subsequent development of the Tohoku region and to the activities of people from the Tohoku region in the central government. The Meiji government planned to build a large-scale port in Nobiru (Miyagi Prefecture) with the intention of controlling the Tohoku region, but after this failed, the focus of development shifted to Hokkaido, and the Tohoku Line, which was completed in 1891 (Meiji 24), also had the character of being a connecting route to Hokkaido, and since then the Tohoku region has been content with its position as a route to Hokkaido.

After the Second World War, the agricultural villages of the Tohoku region, which had been under a strict landlord-tenant system, underwent a major transformation in the wake of land reform. Although income levels were raised through comprehensive national development and industrialization, the living and industrial bases remain fragile and the region faces many problems, including population outflow. It can be said that we have entered an era in which the food base theory and industrialization theory seen in national land development over the past 50 years after the war must be liquidated, and new living spaces in an environment rich in nature must be explored.

[Norio Hasegawa]

Folklore

The Tohoku region is said to be a treasure trove of folk customs, as many folk customs that convey the old ways remain, but this is due to its geographical location, which is like a dead end. In the preface to "Tales of Tono" (1910), a collection of oral traditions from the Tono area of Iwate Prefecture, Kunio Yanagita wrote, "The Tales of Now and Then, which were our predecessors 900 years ago, existed at that time and are now stories of the past, but this is something that is happening right in front of us."

In the Tohoku region, blind spirit-channeling shrine maidens (miko) who convey the words of the dead, known as Itako, Ogamisama, Onakama and Waka, still perform shamanistic work in various regions. They begin training under a master at the age of 12 or 13 and spend two to three years studying. After learning sutras and ritual texts and undergoing rigorous purification rituals, they undergo a ritual to become a shaman called Utsushisome, are given magical tools, acquire a territory and begin performing shamanistic work. Shamanic magic involves chanting ritual texts while playing a bow or ichigenkin, and conveying the words of the dead to the client in a trance-like state. Depending on the client's request, they also perform opparai, which wards off evil, and enabarai, which prays for safe childbirth. In Hayamagomori in Fukushima Prefecture, a man called Noriwara is possessed by a god who gives prophecies about the harvest or failure of agricultural crops.

Oshirasama is enshrined in old houses all over the country as the guardian deity of the clan. It is thought that this deity is represented by a pair of ornaments, and the women of the clan hold a festival called Oshirasama Asobase, where invited shrine maidens give divine oracles. In central Iwate Prefecture, hanging scrolls of images of Prince Shotoku and Amida Nyorai are known as Mairinohotoke, and on the anniversaries of the deaths of ancestors, clan members gather at the main house to hold festivals. In the past, they were said to have been hoisted at the head of funeral processions. Also as the guardian deity of the household, there is the Kamagami, which is enshrined on a pillar in the kitchen. These are frightening human masks made of wood or clay, and are found only in the former Sendai domain.

Among the offerings on New Year's Eve are those called Nidama in Akita Prefecture and Midama in Iwate and Miyagi Prefectures. Twelve rice balls or mochi (rice cakes) are arranged on a tray or winnowing basket, with the same number of chopsticks added, and offered to a Shinto altar or Buddhist altar. Midama is a spirit, and conveys the ancient custom of worshiping the spirits of ancestors on New Year's Eve as well as the Bon festival. The Namahage festival on the Oga Peninsula in Akita Prefecture is an important folk custom, originally a Little New Year event, in which masked young people visit houses in groups, intimidate women and children, speak words of blessing, and are treated to a feast by the family members, representing the coming of the New Year god. Similar events include Amahage in Yuza Town, Yamagata Prefecture, Nagomitaguri in the Hei region of Iwate Prefecture, Suneka in Sanriku Town, Ofunato City, Iwate Prefecture, Yake Hachiman and Naked Kasedori in Yanagisawa, Kami Town, Miyagi Prefecture, and are related to the Amamehagi (Amamihagi) on the Noto Peninsula and similar events in the Nansei Islands. The Mizu-kake Festival in Ichinoseki City, Iwate Prefecture, and Mizu-ka-buri in Tome City, Miyagi Prefecture, held in early February, are considered fire prevention events because water is poured on naked young people, but they are events held at the beginning of spring even if they are not New Year's Day, and are considered to be the same type as Namahage. Kapakapa in Aomori Prefecture and Kasedori in Yamagata, Miyagi and Fukushima Prefectures are nowadays a children's begging game for the Little New Year, but the basic content of the event remains, such as chanting while hiding one's face. Kamakura in Yokote City, Akita Prefecture, is also a bird-chasing hut built in a snow cave for the Little New Year. Namahage is "Namahage of Oga", Amahage is "Little New Year Events in Yusa", Suneka is "Suneka of Yoshihama", Amamehagi is "Amamehagi of Noto", and Mizukaburi is "Mizukaburi of Yonekawa", and are all part of the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Intangible Cultural Heritage "Raihoshin: Gods in Masks and Costumes".

Although they have become tourist attractions, the Nebuta festival in Aomori and Hirosaki, the Kanto festival in Akita, and the Tanabata festival in Sendai still retain the element of purification seven days before the Bon festival, and are a continuation of traditional events. The Dewa Sanzan mountains in Yamagata (Gassan, Haguro, and Yudono) flourished as the base of the Haguro school of Shugendo, and there are many sacred mountains such as Iwakisan (Aomori), Hayachinesan (Iwate), Chokaisan (Akita, Yamagata), Zaosan (Yamagata, Miyagi), Iidesan (Yamagata, Fukushima), and Ryozen (Fukushima). These are considered sacred places for Shugendo, which has a background in mountain worship, and their teachings have had a great influence on the folk beliefs of the foothills.

Mount Osorezan on the Shimokita Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture is reminiscent of hell and paradise due to its bizarre volcanic landscape, and is believed to be a mountain where the spirits of the dead reside. Many worshippers gather at Entsu-ji Temple (Soto sect) on the mountain in July to hold a memorial service for the dead. Although this has become less common in recent years, itako from nearby areas gather at the memorial service, and spirit mediums are available to perform spirit possession at the request of worshippers, which is prosperous. Risshaku-ji Temple (Tendai sect) in Yamagata City, also known as Yamadera, is a famous temple said to have been founded by Jikaku Daishi. The entire mountain is covered with strange rocks and bizarre stones, and there are countless stupas in the inner sanctuary. Many people visit the mountain to hold memorial services for the dead, as the spirits of the dead gather there. Morinoyama, a local town in Tsuruoka, Yamagata Prefecture, is a tradition in which people at the foot of the mountain climb during the Bon to celebrate the dead, known as forest memorial service. Mirokuji (Shingon sect) in Tome City, Miyagi Prefecture is located on a hill surrounded by rice fields, and the puja ceremony on the evening of the 15th of the Bon festival is crowded with nearby pilgrimages. "If you visit Mirokuji Temple for three years, you will meet the dead," and when there are people who resemble a dead family, there is a wind that will encourage you to invite them to welcome them, conveying their belief that it is a mountain where you can encounter the dead.

[Misaki Kazuo]

Folktales

Since Yanagitakuni published Tono Monogatari (1910), folk tales from the Tohoku region have become a focus of attention. Tohoku legends are both excellent and rich in quality and quantity. It is not uncommon for some speakers to tell 100 stories.

Oral traditions show extremely dense distribution in the cold climate. This is a phenomenon that is deeply connected to the lives of people who warm up at the Iroribata, work hard, and have held festivals and events centered around the fire. The reason why folk tales left in various parts of Tohoku are considered to be extremely old is probably because the old forms of the Hare Days held at the Iroribata are left behind there. Many folk tales are deeply connected to agricultural rituals because the narration had a function that closely resembles farming, especially rice farming.

The folk tales are located in the Iroritan area and have specific promises. The order and etiquette of the story are strictly required, and the commandment is "the daytime." Animal folk tales and step-soccer tales are particularly popular, and the story is said to include "the snowy wife" and "the tail fishing" that are unique to snowy regions. There are many legends. Many examples of stories are about the main characters of the tour, such as Kobo Daishi, Yoshitsune, Benkei, Kaison, Ono Komachi, Minatsuruhime, and Omochi-Kamihime. These are probably due to the influence of religious people who traveled around temples and shrines in Tohoku, where mountain religions are popular. It is common to see the villagers as familiar and established the narratives under the control of mountain ascetics, zato, jinin, shrine maidens, and bikuni.

A migrant man tells Esashi's "Shigejiro tales" to those who are different from those of foreign visitors. This laughing story, distributed on the coast of the Tohoku region, is a story carried by the Yangshu who traveled through the Hokkaido region. He speaks in a funny way with a cunning wise man as the main character, and is widely spoken from the Shimokita Peninsula to Akita and the sea villages in the southern Tohoku region. In the mountainous areas, Aizu's "Minamiyama Tales" is a story that conveys laughter. Although it is a foolish tale, it is designed to mock people from the mountains. It is a mocking story of differences in customs and customs.

The Tohoku region has long been a popular port for the capital's culture. Today, some of the storytellings and folk tales in Tohoku are thought to have been strongly influenced by the grasshoppers of Kyoto and Kamigata, such as "Oguri Hangan."

[Junichi Nomura]

"The History of the Local Region, Tohoku Edition by Mori Kabei et al. (1959, Hobunkan) " ▽ "The National Geography and Culture Series, Tohoku Region" (1960, Seibundo Shinkosha)" ▽ "Illustrated Japanese Culture Series, Tohoku I, II" (1961, Shogakukan)" ▽ "The Fudoki Japan, Tohoku Hokuriku Edition" (1958, Heibonsha)" ▽ "The Geography of Japan, Tohoku Edition" (1961, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The New Japan Geography Seminar 2, Tohoku Region" (1984, Daimeido)" ▽ "The Research Institute of Japan Geography, Volumes 3-4, Tohoku Region" (1981, 1982, Ninomiya Shoten)" ▽ "Takahashi Tomio, "The Culture and History of Tohoku" (1976, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "Toyota Takeshi, History of Tohoku, 14 volumes, 1967-1979, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Harada Minoru and others, "Michinoku Traditional Culture" 5 volumes (1986, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Integrated Japanese Place Names" (1996, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Amino Yoshihiko et al., "The Great Series of Japanese Folklore Culture, 14 volumes, separate volumes, 1" (1994, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Nomura Junichi, "Forest of Fairy Tales" (1998, Taishukan Shoten)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

本州の北東部を占める地域で、青森、岩手、宮城、秋田、山形、福島の6県からなる。北は津軽(つがる)海峡を隔てて北海道と相対し、南は関東地方に、南西は中部地方に接する。大化改新（645）のころ、日本の中心からみて奥地を意味する道奥(みちのく)国とされ、その後、陸奥(むつ)国と書くようになり、出羽(でわ)国設置（712）後は両者をあわせて奥羽(おうう)、奥州とよぶこともあった。東北地方という呼称は明治以降のことである。なお、行政上や地域開発の観点から新潟県を東北地方に加えることもある。東北日本のうち、北海道は開拓が新しく、古い伝統や因襲を伴わず、近代以降産業、文化の急速な進展がみられたのに対し、東北地方は古くから開拓が進められたにもかかわらず、一時藤原氏の平泉(ひらいずみ)文化が開花したとはいえ、近世から現代に至るまで、絶えず冷害凶作にみまわれ、苦しい歴史を経てきた。日本の近代化が進むなかで、東北地方は農林水産業など第一次産業に偏って工業化が遅れ、食料と労働力を提供するという後進性から脱却することができなかった。第二次世界大戦後、農地改革を契機に東北地方の農業は大きく変貌(へんぼう)し、また全国総合開発計画による諸施策の効果もあがり、近代工業もしだいに定着してきた。その結果、人口、産業の過集積に悩む中央諸地域に比べ将来性が評価され、東北地方への遷都論さえ提唱されるようになった。

　東北地方の面積は6万6950平方キロメートルで、全国総面積の17.7％を占め（2006）、人口は約963万人（2005）で、日本の総人口の7.5％を占め、1平方キロメートル当りの人口密度は143.9人で、全国平均338.1人の半分にも満たない。市町村数は286（2005年10月）で、そのうち市は73である。1989年政令指定都市となった仙台市には東北六県の管理機能が集中し、人口は102万人を数える。ほかに人口20万人を超える都市は県庁所在地の青森、盛岡、秋田、山形、福島の各市と、八戸(はちのへ)、郡山(こおりやま)、いわきの3工業都市がある。東北地方の都市の多くは、城下町、港町、市場町から発展したもので、明治以降に発達した釜石(かまいし)、郡山の工業都市、仙台市周辺の住宅都市的性格の強い岩沼(いわぬま)、名取(なとり)、多賀城(たがじょう)などの各市を除けば、近世の都市配置の骨格が現在もなお踏襲されており、東北地方の産業発展が遅れた一断面をみることができる。

［長谷川典夫］

自然

南北に細長い東北地方は、地形的には南北に配列する3列の山地帯と3列の低地帯とにより6列の地形区に分けられる。太平洋側には北上(きたかみ)高地、阿武隈(あぶくま)高地の東部山地帯があり、中央には褶曲(しゅうきょく)山地の奥羽山脈があって、それに那須(なす)火山帯が並走し、両者の間には北上、阿武隈両河谷平野と仙台平野がある。日本海側には出羽山地、越後(えちご)山脈、鳥海(ちょうかい)火山帯が走り、奥羽山脈との間には弘前(ひろさき)、大館(おおだて)、横手(よこて)、新庄(しんじょう)、山形、米沢(よねざわ)、会津(あいづ)などの盆地列がある。また日本海側には津軽、能代(のしろ)、秋田、庄内(しょうない)などの沿岸平野地帯がある。奥羽山脈は東北地方の水系を東西に分ける大分水界であるが、全体として、南北に延びる列状の地形配置がこの地方の気候や交通網の形成に種々の影響を与えている。東北地方の地形的特色は多くの景観を生んでいる。太平洋側のリアス式海岸には三陸復興国立公園（旧陸中海岸国立公園、旧南三陸金華山国定公園）があり、火山と温泉に富む奥羽山脈や出羽山地には、十和田八幡平(とわだはちまんたい)、磐梯朝日(ばんだいあさひ)、日光、尾瀬の国立公園と、蔵王(ざおう)、栗駒(くりこま)の国定公園がある。また、青森・秋田両県にまたがる白神(しらかみ)山地は世界遺産（自然遺産）に登録（1993）されている。

　北海道に次いで北に位置する東北地方は年平均気温が低めで、北部の青森市で9.7℃、南部のいわき市小名浜(おなはま)で12.9℃と記録され、南北に長いためその差は3.2℃となっている。気温の南北差は冬にやや顕著であるが、夏にはほとんど差がない。しかし奥羽山脈を境に太平洋側と日本海側とでは気候の相違が明瞭(めいりょう)で、とくに冬の北西季節風の卓越する時期には日本海側の多雪、太平洋側の乾燥と、対照的な気候となるが、夏には中央盆地列や日本海岸の平野が太平洋岸よりむしろ高温となり、この夏の高温が東北地方の米作を支える大きな条件となっている。東北地方では一般に春の訪れが遅く夏が短いが、太平洋側の北東部では、春から夏にかけてオホーツク気団の影響で「やませ」とよばれる北東風の卓越することがあり、日照不足と低温により作物の冷害をおこすことがある。

　東北地方は全体として温帯植物区に属し、トチノキ、クリ、カツラ、クルミ、シラカンバなどの落葉広葉樹と、ヒノキ、アスナロ、カラマツなどの針葉樹が代表的樹種である。暖地性常緑樹のタブノキは太平洋側では岩手県中部まで、日本海側では青森県南西部まで分布し自生の北限地をなしている。またヤブツバキ、オケラ、オキナグサなどは青森県が北限となっている。2000メートル内外の山地では高山植物が豊富で、各山地にその自生地がある。また栽培植物では、竹の栽培北限界が青森県を、茶の栽培北限界が宮城県を通っている。

［長谷川典夫］

産業

産業別の就業人口率（1995）をみると、第一次産業12.9％、第二次産業31.0％、第三次産業55.9％となっており、全国平均の6.1％、31.4％、61.9％に比べ第一次産業の比率が高く、第三次産業の比率が低い。しかし第一次産業の比率は年々低下している。これを県内純生産でみれば、第一次産業の比率はさらに低率となり、生産性の低い第一次産業の比重が大きいことが、東北各県1人当りの分配所得で東京都の52.3～60.7％（1993）にとどまらざるをえない要因となっている。

　東北地方6県の総耕地面積は94.1万ヘクタール（1995）で、全国の18.7％を占める。そのうち田（普通田、特殊田を含む）は70.1％で、全国比24.0％となる。とくに宮城、秋田、山形の3県の田の比率は高く、栽培技術の向上、品種改良、農作業の機械化などで日本の穀倉地帯を形成している。畑作では野菜、果樹、豆類、麦類、タバコなどが栽培され、果樹のうち青森県のリンゴ、福島・山形両県のモモ、山形県のブドウ、サクランボの生産高は全国でも高い比重を占めている。東北地方でも農家の兼業化が進み、1994年（平成6）の販売農家総数のうち専業農家は10.1％に過ぎず、1995年の新しい分類（主業農家、準主業農家、副主業農家）による主業農家は27.3％であった。一方、青森、岩手、秋田、山形の各県は出稼ぎ農家の多いことで知られるが、1993年の兼業従事者のうち、おもに出稼ぎに従事した者は東北地方では4万1000人を数え、日雇い、臨時雇いへの従事者も20万3000人にのぼった。

　林野面積は465.5万ヘクタール（1990）で、東北全域の約70％を覆い、とくに青森のヒバ、秋田の杉、岩手のアカマツは良材として知られ、各地でブナも伐採される。

　三陸沖は寒流と暖流がぶつかり、また北洋サケ・マス漁場を控え、太平洋岸の青森、岩手、宮城の3県ではとくに漁業が活発である。東北地方の総漁獲量は124.7万トン（1994）に達し、全国の13.4％を占める。サバ、スケトウダラ、カレイ、マグロ、カツオ、サンマ、イカなどを多く漁獲し、八戸、宮古(みやこ)、大船渡(おおふなと)、気仙沼(けせんぬま)、女川(おながわ)、石巻(いしのまき)、塩竈(しおがま)、小名浜(おなはま)などの漁港に水揚げされる。養殖漁業は陸奥(むつ)湾のホタテ、三陸海岸各湾のギンザケ、ホタテ、ノリ、ワカメ、カキ、ホヤ、松島湾のカキがよく知られている。

　東北地方の鉱業は、かつては地下資源が豊富で、とくに奥羽山脈の第三紀の緑色凝灰岩とそれを貫く火成岩地帯には金、銀、銅、亜鉛、鉛などの鉱床があり、秋田県の小坂(こさか)、尾去沢(おさりざわ)の銅、宮城県細倉の鉛、亜鉛などのほか、岩手県松尾の硫黄(いおう)、岩手県釜石(かまいし)の鉄鉱、秋田県八橋(やばせ)の原油、福島県常磐(じょうばん)炭田などが著名であったが、第二次世界大戦後、鉱脈の枯渇、輸入鉱の増加、採算面での問題などから閉山したものが多い。現在の主要金属鉱山としては秋田県の花岡(はなおか)、釈迦内(しゃかない)、小坂などの鉱山があげられる。閉山した鉱山のなかには、細倉、尾去沢のように、マインパークや鉱山資料館として面影をとどめている地区もみられる。

　1994年（平成6）の東北六県の総工業製品出荷額は16兆1448億円で全国のわずか5.4％にすぎず、そのうち福島・宮城両県で52.6％を占める。従来、東北地方の工業は、その土地に産出する資源に依存する資源立地型が多かった。八戸、大船渡のセメント工業、秋田のパルプ工業、釜石の製鉄業、宮古の化学肥料工業、港湾都市での水産加工業などのほか、豊富な電源を利用した特殊鋼や電気製錬業などがある。近年は輸入原料による化学、金属、石油精製、非鉄金属、紙パルプなどの工業が小名浜、仙台、八戸、秋田、酒田などの港湾都市を背後に立地するようになり、農村の労働力に依存する電気機器や繊維製品の工場も各地に進出している。しかし製造品出荷額で上位を占める業種は電気機器製造業と食料品製造業が群を抜いており、それに次ぐのは飲料・飼料、一般機械、金属製品、窯業・土石、化学工業製品などの製造業で多角化傾向がみられるとはいえ、資源と労働力に依存する従来の型からの脱皮はまだ十分とはいえない。

［長谷川典夫］

交通

南北に並列する山地が交通網を支配する。JRでは南北方向に走る1891年（明治24）開通の東北本線をはじめ、常磐(じょうばん)線、奥羽本線、羽越本線などが主幹線となり、花輪線、田沢湖線、北上線、陸羽東線、仙山線、磐越西線が奥羽山脈を横切り、山田線、釜石(かまいし)線、大船渡(おおふなと)線などが北上高地を、磐越東線、水郡(すいぐん)線が阿武隈(あぶくま)高地を、陸羽西線、米坂(よねさか)線、磐越西線が出羽山地と越後(えちご)山脈をそれぞれ横切って平野や盆地を結んでいる。なお、国鉄の合理化対策として、久慈(くじ)、盛(さかり)、宮古の各線が第三セクターによる三陸鉄道に、丸森線が阿武隈急行に転換された。大畑(おおはた)線は民営鉄道に移行した後2001年（平成13）に廃止。また日中(にっちゅう)線、黒石線などのようにバス輸送に変わったものもある。山田線の宮古―釜石間は2011年3月の東日本大震災による被害が大きく、長期間復旧のめどがたたず、バスでの振替輸送を行っていたが、2019年3月に三陸鉄道へ移管されて営業を開始した。さらに東北新幹線盛岡―八戸間開通（2002）、八戸―新青森間開通（2010）に伴い、東北本線の盛岡―青森間が、第三セクターIGRいわて銀河鉄道（岩手県区間）および第三セクター青い森鉄道（青森県区間）に移管された。高速交通時代に対処して1971年（昭和46）に着工された東北新幹線は1982年6月大宮―盛岡間が開業、1991年（平成3）には東京駅乗り入れとなり、また、福島―新庄間、盛岡―秋田間も在来線を利用してミニ新幹線が東北地方を横断し、一方、1988年には、青函(せいかん)トンネルが開通し、北海道、東北、首都圏が直結、鉄道交通は新局面を迎えた。主要国道は鉄道に並走するものが多いが、東西方向を走る国道には山地の難所を切り開いたものが多い。首都と東北地方とを高速で結ぶ東北自動車道は川口ジャンクション―青森間、八戸自動車道は安代(あしろ)ジャンクション―八戸北間、常磐自動車道は三郷(みさと)ジャンクション―亘理(わたり)間が開通し、横断道としては、秋田自動車道（北上ジャンクション―二ツ井白神間、大館能代空港―小坂間）、磐越自動車道（いわきジャンクション―新潟中央間）や山形自動車道（村田ジャンクション―月山(がっさん)、湯殿山(ゆどのさん)―鶴岡ジャンクション）が開通している。

　海上交通のうち貨物輸送では、小名浜(おなはま)、仙台、塩竈(しおがま)、気仙沼、釜石、宮古、八戸、青森、秋田、酒田などの主要港で工業原材料や製品、雑貨などの搬出入を行っている。中距離・長距離フェリーは青函航路をはじめ、仙台、八戸と苫小牧(とまこまい)との間、および仙台―名古屋間に運航されている。

　航空交通では、青森、三沢、秋田、大館・能代、花巻(はなまき)、山形、庄内、仙台、福島に空港があり、札幌、東京、名古屋、大阪、福岡などと直結し、青森、花巻、仙台には国際定期便が就航している。

［長谷川典夫］

開発

東北地方では近世以降、新田開発が活発であり、これに伴う仙台藩の河川の大改修（宮城県）や、鹿妻堰(かづまぜき)、寿庵堰(じゅあんぜき)（岩手県）、安積疎水(あさかそすい)（福島県）などの用水路の開削や三本木原(さんぼんぎはら)（青森県）の開拓などの諸工事が明治期まで行われている。明治政府は東北開発の拠点として1878年（明治11）から野蒜(のびる)（宮城県）に近代的港湾の建設を図り、道路網の整備を行ったが、1884年外港設備の損壊から、洋式港湾の建設は長崎に移され、政府の関心も東北開発から北海道開拓へと移ってしまった。その結果、明治・大正期から第二次世界大戦終結まで、東北地方は食料や労働力、兵士の供給地としての地位に甘んじなければならなかった。この間に、農村の二、三男対策としての開墾政策や、昭和初期の東北振興計画なども実施されたが、それも東北地方の後進性を払拭(ふっしょく)するものではなかった。

　第二次世界大戦後の1950年（昭和25）、荒廃した国土を開発、保全し、経済の自立を目ざした国土総合開発法の特定地域が指定され、東北地方では北上、阿仁(あに)田沢、最上(もがみ)、只見(ただみ)の4地域が指定され、ついで十和田岩木川、北奥羽、仙塩の3地域が追加指定となった。これらは仙塩が工業基盤の整備を目標とするほかは、災害防止、資源開発などを柱とするもので、各地に洪水防止、発電、灌漑(かんがい)用など多目的ダムが建設された。また、1957年には東北開発促進法、東北開発株式会社法、北海道東北開発公庫法のいわゆる東北開発三法が成立し、東北地方の開発に対して資金援助が受けられるようになった。しかしその成果は満足すべきものでなかった。1963年、政府は全国総合開発計画に基づき、新産業都市を指定し、人口と工業の分散を図ることになり、東北では1977年に八戸、仙台湾、常磐郡山(じょうばんこおりやま)の3地区が、ついで秋田湾が追加指定され、港湾建設や工業用地の造成などが行われた。1968年の新全国総合開発計画では、東北地方を首都圏の北に続く大都市周辺圏と位置づけ、仙台を中核とした主軸開発方式によって東北新幹線や東北自動車道で首都圏と結ぶとともに、東北地方を食料供給基地と性格づけ、また、むつ小川原(おがわら)地区を大規模工業開発基地としている。1977年のオイル・ショックを契機に経済の安定成長期に対処する第三次全国総合開発計画が決定され、これに基づく定住圏構想から1980年には東北六県でも六つのモデル定住圏が設定された。ついで1987年の第四次全国総合開発計画では多極分散型の国土形成を基本目標としたが、これを引き継ぐ第五次の計画は、1998年（平成10）の政府案によれば「21世紀のグランドデザイン」とよばれ、多軸型国土構造への転換が提案されている。東北地方では北東国土軸と日本海国土軸の二つを地域連携軸として展開し、仙台を中心とした世界に開かれた都市機能の整備、自然と調和した生活・文化環境や観光レクリエーション機能の強化などがうたわれている。東北地方への首都機能の移転もこのような観点から期待されている。

［長谷川典夫］

人口

東北6県の総人口は1950年（昭和25）の約934万人から1995年（平成7）には約984万人に増加、2005年には963万人に減少しているが、1995年までの5年置きの統計をみると、1950～1955年に23万人の増加を示したあとは1970年まで減少を続け、1975年にようやく20万人の増加をみ、1980年には957万人、1990年には974万人に達した。この間、一貫して増加したのは宮城県のみで、他の5県が増加に転じたのは1975年以降である。全国総人口に対する東北地方の構成比は1955年の10.5％からしだいに低下して1980年には8.1％、1995年には7.8％、2005年には7.5％となり、この間の人口流出の著しかったことを示している。人口増加が顕著なのは仙台市をはじめとする県庁所在地や主要工業都市、および仙台市周辺の住宅都市的機能をもつ諸都市である。このような人口増加の原因には都市への工業立地や第三次産業の集積があげられるが、全体としては人口流出が減って自然増加が表れてきたことも一因である。しかし農山村の人口は減少を続け、過疎地域や過疎現象が解消したとみることはできない。

［長谷川典夫］

歴史

東北地方に人類がいつごろから住み着いたかは明らかではない。しかし日本各地で発掘される打製石器や、縄文土器、弥生(やよい)土器も発見されており、先住民族が東北地方にも居住していたことは明らかである。青森市西部の三内丸山遺跡(さんないまるやまいせき)からは約4500年前の巨大な木柱その他が出土し、縄文前期～中期の大集落の跡と考えられている。2～3世紀ごろには仙台平野を中心に水田農業が行われていたとみられる。この地方に住む蝦夷(えみし)は大和(やまと)国家によってその支配下に置かれるようになる。大化改新以後、律令(りつりょう)国家による国郡制が定められて道奥国と称されるようになり、兵と農民による開拓が強力に進められた。ついで大宝(たいほう)律令制定（701）のとき陸奥国と改められ、日本海側の出羽国とともに東山道に属した。

　奈良時代には蝦夷経営の拠点として多賀城（宮城県）と秋田城が築かれ、これを結ぶ線上に払田柵(ほったのさく)、色麻柵(しかまのき)などが設けられた。蝦夷に対して同化政策がとられたが、奈良時代の末期には蝦夷が各地で反乱を起こしたので、その征討のため征夷(せいい)大将軍坂上田村麻呂(さかのうえのたむらまろ)が派遣された。彼は蝦夷の本拠地の胆沢(いさわ)（奥州市）を落とし、胆沢城、志和(しわ)城を築いた。11世紀になって安倍(あべ)・清原(きよはら)・藤原氏らの豪族が台頭したが、安倍氏は源頼義(よりよし)に、清原氏は源義家(よしいえ)に滅ぼされ、平泉で3代にわたり栄華を誇った藤原氏も1189年（文治5）源頼朝(よりとも)の奥州攻めによって滅亡した。以後東北地方は鎌倉幕府に従属することとなり、千葉、葛西(かさい)、畠山(はたけやま)氏らの鎌倉武士が東北地方に所領を得た。鎌倉末期から室町時代にかけては群雄の割拠するところとなったが、戦国時代には伊達(だて)氏が奥州第一の大名となった。関ヶ原の戦い以後、東北地方も江戸幕府の厳しい支配下に置かれ、津軽氏（青森）、佐竹氏（秋田）、南部氏（岩手）、伊達氏（宮城・岩手）、松平氏（福島）、上杉氏（山形）らの大名が配置された。城下町の建設や新田開発が行われ、参勤交代に往復する主要街道には多くの宿場町が発達した。産業としては、秋田藩の小坂、阿仁(あに)の銅山、盛岡藩の製鉄、馬産、会津藩や米沢藩の養蚕や織物などが注目された。

　明治維新に際しては、諸藩は奥羽越列藩同盟(おううえつれっぱんどうめい)を締結して奥羽鎮撫(ちんぶ)使に対抗したが、やがて悲劇的な結末となり、賊軍の汚名を冠せられた。このことは、以後の東北の発展にも、東北人の中央での活躍にも大きな足かせとなった。明治政府は東北経略の意図から野蒜(のびる)（宮城県）に大規模な築港を計画したが、これに失敗したのちは開発の重点は北海道に移され、1891年（明治24）に全通した東北線も北海道への連絡路としての性格が強く、以後東北地方は北海道への通り道としての地位に甘んじてきた。

　第二次世界大戦後、農地改革を契機に、強固な地主小作制度下にあった東北地方の農村も大きく変貌(へんぼう)した。また国土総合開発や工業化によって所得水準の向上も図られたが、なお生活基盤や産業基盤は脆弱(ぜいじゃく)であり、人口流出などの問題点を多く抱えている。戦後50年の国土開発にみられた食糧基地論や工業化玉条論を清算し、自然豊かな環境下での新しい生活空間づくりが模索されるべき時代に入ったといえよう。

［長谷川典夫］

民俗

東北地方には旧風を伝える民俗習俗が多く残り、民俗の宝庫といわれるが、それはいわば袋小路的な地理的条件によるものである。柳田国男(やなぎたくにお)が岩手県遠野市一帯の口頭伝承を綴(つづ)った『遠野物語』（1910）の序文に「我(わが)九百年前の先輩今昔物語の如(ごと)きは其(その)当時に在りて既(すで)に今は昔の話なりしに反し此(これ)は是(これ)目前の出来事なり」と記していることでも知られる。

　東北地方にはイタコ、オガミサマ、オナカマ、ワカなどとよばれる死者のことばを伝える盲目の口寄せ巫女(みこ)がいまなお各地で巫業(ふぎょう)を営んでいる。彼女らは12、13歳で師匠につき、2、3年修業する。経文や祭文を修得し、厳しい潔斎ののち、ウツシソメという成巫儀礼を受け呪具(じゅぐ)を授与され、縄張りを獲得して巫業を営む。巫術(ふじゅつ)は、弓や一絃琴(いちげんきん)をたたきながら祭文を唱え、忘我状態となって依頼者に死者のことばを伝える。依頼者の求めによっては、災いを祓(はら)うオッパライや安産を願うエナバライなども行っている。福島県の羽山(はやま)ごもりは、ノリワラとよばれる者に神が憑(つ)き、農耕の豊凶を託宣する。

　同族集団の守護神として、各地の旧家にオシラサマが祀(まつ)られている。この神は一対の執物(とりもの)が神体とされたものと考えられるが、一族の女性たちによってオシラサマアソバセという祭りがあり、招かれた巫女が神の託宣をする。岩手県中央部には太子像や阿弥陀如来(あみだにょらい)像の掛軸がマイリノホトケとよばれ、先祖の命日には一族が本家に集まって祭事を行う。古くは葬列の先頭に掲げたという。やはり家の守護神として、台所の柱に祀るカマガミがある。木製や土製の恐ろしい人面で、旧仙台領に限られて分布している。

　年越しの夜の供物のなかに、秋田県ではニダマ、岩手・宮城県ではミダマとよばれるものがある。膳(ぜん)や箕(み)の上に12個の握り飯か餅(もち)を並べ、同数の箸(はし)を添え、神棚や仏壇に供える。ミダマは御魂で、盆行事とともに年越しの夜にも先祖の霊を祀った古風を伝えている。秋田県男鹿(おが)半島のなまはげ行事は民俗習俗のなかでも重要なもので、本来は小(こ)正月行事であり、仮面仮装の若者たちが群行して家々を訪れ、女性や子供を威喝し、祝福を与えることばを述べ、家人から饗応(きょうおう)を受ける行事で、正月の神の来臨する姿の行事化である。同種の行事は山形県遊佐(ゆざ)町のアマハゲ、岩手県閉伊(へい)地方のナゴミタグリ、同県大船渡(おおふなと)市三陸町のスネカ、宮城県加美(かみ)町柳沢の焼け八幡(やけはちまん)、同町の裸カセドリなどがあり、能登(のと)半島のアマメハギ（アマミハギ）や南西諸島の同類の行事に連なっている。2月初旬に行われる岩手県一関(いちのせき)市の水掛け祭りや宮城県登米(とめ)市の水かぶりは、裸の若者たちに水をかけることから、火伏せの行事とされるが、正月でなくとも春の初めの行事であり、なまはげと同種と考えられる。青森県のカパカパや山形・宮城・福島県などのカセドリは、現在では子供たちの小正月の物ごい遊びになっているが、顔を隠して唱え言をするなど、この行事の基本的な内容は残している。秋田県横手市のカマクラも、小正月につくる鳥追い小屋が、雪洞につくられたものである。なお、なまはげは「男鹿のナマハゲ」、アマハゲは「遊佐の小正月行事」、スネカは「吉浜(よしはま)のスネカ」、アマメハギは「能登のアマメハギ」、水かぶりは「米川(よねかわ)の水かぶり」として、ユネスコ（国連教育科学文化機関）の無形文化遺産「来訪神：仮面・仮装の神々」の一部を構成している。

　観光化されているが青森市や弘前(ひろさき)市のネブタ、秋田県の竿灯(かんとう)、仙台市の七夕(たなばた)などは、盆行事の7日前の祓いの要素を残しており、伝統的な行事を引き継いだものである。山形県の出羽三山（月山(がっさん)、羽黒山(はぐろさん)、湯殿山(ゆどのさん)）は羽黒派修験(しゅげん)の本拠として栄え、岩木山（青森）、早池峰(はやちね)山（岩手）、鳥海山（秋田、山形）、蔵王山（山形、宮城）、飯豊山(いいでさん)（山形、福島）、霊山(りょうぜん)（福島）など多くの霊山があり、山岳信仰を背景とする修験道の聖地とされ、彼らの教理は山麓(さんろく)の民間信仰に大きな影響を与えてきた。

　青森県下北(しもきた)半島の恐山(おそれざん)は、火山による奇怪な景観から地獄、極楽が連想され、死者の霊がとどまる山としての信仰があり、山上の円通寺（曹洞(そうとう)宗）の7月の法会(ほうえ)には、多くの登拝者を集め、死者供養が行われる。近年の風ではあるが、法会に近郷のイタコが集まり、参拝者の求めに応じての口寄せは盛況をみせている。山形市の山寺(やまでら)とよばれる立石寺(りっしゃくじ)（天台宗）は慈覚大師の開基と伝えられる名刹(めいさつ)であるが、全山奇岩怪石が累々とし、奥の院にはおびただしい数の塔婆がみられ、死者霊の集まる山として死者供養のために参詣(さんけい)する者が多い。山形県鶴岡(つるおか)市近郷の森ノ山は、盆に山麓の人々が登って森供養とよばれる死者を供養する習俗がある。宮城県登米市の弥勒寺(みろくじ)（真言宗）は水田に囲まれた丘の上にあり、盆の15日夜の法会には近在からの参詣者でにぎわう。「3年弥勒寺詣(まい)りをすると死者に会える」といい、参詣人のなかに死んだ家族に似た者がいると、無理にも誘ってもてなす風があり、死者と邂逅(かいこう)することのできる山との信仰を伝えている。

［三崎一夫］

民話

柳田国男(やなぎたくにお)が『遠野物語』（1910）を上梓(じょうし)して以来、東北地方の民話は人々の注目するところとなった。東北の伝承資料は質、量ともに優れて豊かである。話者のなかには100話を語る翁(おきな)、媼(おうな)も珍しくない。

　口頭伝承は、寒冷な風土ほどきわめて濃密な分布をみる。これは、いろり端(ばた)で暖をとり、仕事に励み、その火を中心にして祭りや行事を行ってきた人々の暮らしと深くかかわる現象である。東北の各地に残される昔話がきわめて古いとされている原因は、いろりの端で行われたハレの日の古い形態の語りが、そこに残されるからであろう。農耕儀礼と深く結ぶ昔話が多いのは、語りが農作、ことに稲作農耕に密着した機能をもっていたからである。

　昔話は、いろり端にあって特定の約束事をもつ。語る順序や語る作法が厳しく求められ、「昼むかし」の戒めをもっている。動物昔話、継子譚(ままこばなし)がとくに好まれ、雪国ならではの「雪女房」、「尻尾(しっぽ)の釣」などが語られる。伝説も多い。弘法(こうぼう)大師や、義経(よしつね)、弁慶、海尊(かいそん)、小野小町、皆鶴姫や中将姫など巡国の主人公を語る例が多い。これらは、山岳宗教が盛んな東北にあって、寺社を中心に往来した宗教者の影響によるのであろう。山伏、座頭(ざとう)、神人(じにん)、巫女(みこ)、比丘尼(びくに)などが管掌した語りを、村人が聞き覚えて定着させたものとする見方が一般的である。

　これらの外来者と流れを異にする民話の伝播(でんぱ)者に、江差(えさし)の「繁次郎(しげじろう)話」を語る出稼ぎ人がある。東北地方海岸部に分布するこの笑話は、北海道のにしん場を渡り歩いたヤン衆(しゅ)の運んだ話である。狡猾(こうかつ)な知恵者を主人公としておもしろく語り、下北半島から秋田、東北地方南部の海村まで広くに語られている。山間部にあって笑いを伝えるものに会津の「南山(みなみやま)話」がある。愚人譚(たん)であるが、里で暮らす者が山里の人を嘲弄(ちょうろう)する仕組みになっている。風俗習慣の違いを揶揄(やゆ)するものである。

　東北地方は古くから開かれた良港が都の文化の取り入れ口であった。今日、東北にある語り物や昔話のなかには、「小栗判官(おぐりはんがん)」などのように、京、上方(かみがた)の草子類の強い影響を受けたと思われるものがみられる。

［野村純一］

『森嘉兵衛ほか著『郷土の歴史　東北編』（1959・宝文館）』▽『『日本地理風俗大系　東北地方』（1960・誠文堂新光社）』▽『『図説日本文化地理大系　東北Ⅰ・Ⅱ』（1961・小学館）』▽『『風土記日本　東北・北陸篇』（1958・平凡社）』▽『『日本の地理　東北編』（1961・岩波書店）』▽『大明堂編集部編『新日本地誌ゼミナール2　東北地方』（1984・大明堂）』▽『日本地誌研究所編『日本地誌3～4巻　東北地方』（1981、1982・二宮書店）』▽『高橋富雄著『東北の風土と歴史』（1976・山川出版社）』▽『豊田武編『東北の歴史』上中下（1967～1979・吉川弘文館）』▽『原田実ほか編『みちのく伝統文化』全5巻（1986・小学館）』▽『『日本地名大百科』（1996・小学館）』▽『網野善彦ほか編『日本民俗文化大系　全14巻・別巻1』（1994・小学館）』▽『野村純一著『昔話の森』（1998・大修館書店）』

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出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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