When an individual attempts to behave adaptively within a group or society, they tend to behave in the same way as the majority rather than acting according to their own personal opinions or beliefs. [Conformity to group norms] Sherif, M. (1936) uses the phenomenon of automatic movement of a light spot to explain the process of norm formation. In the first session, participants are asked to answer repeatedly how far a stationary light spot has moved (the distance traveled) in an individual situation. Naturally, individual differences are reflected, and there is variation in the answers between the participants. Next, when the participants are asked to answer in the same way in a group situation (each individual is in a small room surrounded by partitions), the variation in answers begins to converge. This is because each individual does not have an objective standard to confirm the validity of their answers, so they try to base their validity on the answers of others participating in the same experiment. In other words, they seek social reality through social comparison. Generally speaking, if one's behavior differs from that of the majority of members, they will try to correct it little by little. This repeated correction is called conformity behavior due to informational influence. This establishes a standard behavior pattern within the group, i.e., a group norm. Once group norms are formed, each member can have confidence in his or her own opinions and actions, and a sense of closeness to other members increases, allowing group action to proceed smoothly. On the other hand, group norms also place strong restrictions on the behavior of each member. Members who behave in ways that deviate from group norms must prepare themselves for sanctions such as criticism or disregard from other members. In other words, group norms act as a pressure for uniformity that encourages conformist behavior among each member. As one example of conformity behavior caused by group pressure, there is a famous study by Asch, SE (1951). The experimental task he used involved participants selecting a line segment of the same length as one standard stimulus from among three comparison stimuli. This task had a clear physical reality, and almost no incorrect answers were produced in individual situations. However, the situation was different when the participants participated in the experiment with seven experimental facilitators and were asked to answer in order (the participants were rigged to sit second to the back). In 12 out of 18 trials, when the majority group of experimental facilitators unanimously gave incorrect answers, the participants showed conformity behavior on average 32% of the time. This is called conformity behavior due to normative influence. It is known that this conformity rate does not change much when the number of experimental facilitators is three or more, and that it drops sharply when the unanimity of the experimental facilitators is broken (if there is even one facilitator who always gives the correct answer). In addition, the effect of age has also been examined, with the highest rate of conformity being around the age of 15. This shows that in this age group, similar possessions and fashions tend to become extremely popular in a short period of time. Deutsch, M. and Gerard, H.B. (1955) used Asch's experimental task and set up a face-to-face situation to see normative influence and an anonymous situation to see informational influence. As a result, even in an anonymous situation where there is no need to feel normative influence due to group pressure (each member is separated by a partition, and responses are made by simply pressing an electric button, and information on other members is displayed on an electric panel), the judgments of other members act as informational cues, and 16% of incorrect judgments were consistent with the majority group. In addition, even in an anonymous situation, when participants were instructed that the performance of the group was a means to win a prize, it was shown that group consciousness was enhanced and the conformity rate was high. In real situations, it is difficult to distinguish between the two influences in a strict sense, and the two are intertwined to cause conformity behavior. The more ambiguous the physical reality of the task or behavior is, the more important the informational influence becomes. In some cases, there is a process in which the meaningful and consistent behavior of a minority influences the majority. [Social norms and conformity behavior] Conformity behavior occurs not only in groups, but also among an unspecified number of people such as passersby. Milgram, S., Bickman, L., and Berkowitz, L. (1969) conducted an experiment in which participants disguised as passersby stopped in a specific area on the sidewalk of a busy street in New York and looked up at a window on the sixth floor of a building across the street for one minute. The proportion of passersby who looked up at the window or stopped to conform increased with the number of participants (six conditions, from 1 to 15 people). The impact of information influence in a social situation is thought to be greater the more numerous the participants are. It is also thought that the principle of social proof is at work in such conformity behavior. If you happen to be walking down a busy street and encounter an uncertain situation in which other passersby are stopping to look up at windows across the street, the appropriate behavior is based on the judgment that following the majority will produce better results. Therefore, the more people who behave in the same way, the more social validity is proven. Even if something does not happen in front of people's eyes, simply providing information that many people are influenced by can lead to conformity behavior. Advertising information such as "Very popular among junior high school girls," "Used by many young mothers," and "80% of high school students have it" can have the effect of encouraging conformity behavior in people who belong to that category. Once a certain opinion is reported as being predominant in a public opinion poll, people who perceive themselves as being in the minority begin to superficially conform to the predominant opinion. Then, people who perceive themselves as being in the minority become increasingly unable to express opposing opinions, and a circular process is observed in which the majority appears to increase. Noele-Neumann, E. (1984) calls this the spiral of silence theory. Cialdini, RB (2001), who proposed the concept of the principle of social proof, divides social norms into injunctive norms and descriptive norms. Injunctive norms are norms that show the behavior people should take (what they should do) to gain a favorable evaluation, while descriptive norms are norms that show the behavior that many people take (what is being done). Giving up your seat to the elderly or disabled is an injunctive norm, but if everyone around you is sitting in their seat without showing any interest, not giving up your seat becomes a descriptive norm. In other words, many others provide social proof of the validity of your sitting in your seat without showing any interest. Furthermore, they demonstrated that focusing on norms produces concrete conformity behavior. Even if participants received a flyer with a message discouraging littering, when the situation (the number of pieces of litter lying around as the descriptive norm) was manipulated, littering of the flyer did not occur in a clean environment where the imperative and descriptive norms were consistent, but littering of the flyer occurred frequently in an inconsistent environment where there was a lot of litter. In order to discourage conformity behavior, it is essential to make efforts to make the descriptive norms consistent with the imperative norms. [Toshikazu Yoshida] Latest Sources Psychology Encyclopedia Latest Psychology Encyclopedia About Information |
集団や社会の中で,個人が適応的に行動しようとした場合,個人的な意見や考えで行動するよりも,多数者と同じ行動を取ることをいう。 【集団規範への同調】 シェリフSherif,M.(1936)は,光点の自動運動現象を利用して,規範の形成過程を説明している。第1セッションでは,個人事態で,動かない光点がどれだけ動いたか(移動距離)を何度も繰り返して答えさせるのである。当然,個人差が反映して,実験参加者間で回答にばらつきが生じることになる。次に,その参加者たちを,集団事態(各個人は仕切り板で囲まれた小部屋の中にいる)にして同じように回答させると,回答のばらつきが収束し始める。これは,各個人が自分の回答の妥当性を確認する客観的基準をもたないので,同じ実験に参加している他者の回答を妥当性のよりどころにしようとしたからである。つまり,社会的比較による社会的実在性social realityを求めたことによる。一般的にいえば,自分の行動が多数の成員と異なれば,少しずつ修正しようとする。こうした修正が繰り返されることを,情報的影響informational influenceによる同調行動という。これによって集団内に一つの標準的な行動様式すなわち集団規範group normが定着する。集団規範がいったん形成されると,各成員は自分の意見や行動に自信をもつことができ,他成員に対する親近感も増大し,集団行動がスムーズに推し進められる。その反面,集団規範は各成員の行動を強く規制するようになる。集団規範から逸脱した行動を取る成員は,他成員からの非難や無視といった制裁を覚悟しなければならない。すなわち,集団規範は各成員に対して,同調行動を促す斉一性への圧力として作用することになる。 こうした集団圧力が引き起こす同調行動としては,アッシュAsch,S.E.(1951)の有名な研究がある。彼が用いた実験課題は,1本の標準刺激と同じ長さの線分を3本の比較刺激の中から選択させるものであった。この課題は,物理的実在性が明確であり,個人事態ではほとんど誤答は出現しないものであった。ところが,実験参加者は7人の実験協力者と一緒に実験に参加し,順番に回答を求められる事態(実験参加者は後ろから2番目に回答する席に着くよう仕組まれていた)におかれると事情は異なってしまう。18試行のうち12試行で,多数群である実験協力者たちが一致して誤った回答をすると,実験参加者は平均32%の同調行動を示してしまう。これを,規範的影響normative influenceによる同調行動という。こうした同調率は,実験協力者の人数が3人以上になるとあまり変わらなくなること,実験協力者の全員一致が崩れると(つねに正答を述べる協力者が一人でもいると),急激に低下することが知られている。このほか,年齢による効果も検討されており,15歳前後で最も同調率は高くなる。したがってこの年齢層では,同じような持ち物やファッションが短期間で大流行するような現象が見られる。 ドイッチュDeutsch,M.とジェラードGerard,H.B.(1955)は,アッシュの実験課題を用い,規範的影響を見るために対面状況,情報的影響を見るために匿名状況を設定した。その結果,集団圧力による規範的影響を感じる必要のない匿名状況(各成員は仕切り板で隔離され,反応は電気ボタンを押すだけで,他の成員の情報は電気パネルで表示される)でも,他の成員の判断は情報的手がかりとして作用し,多数群と一致する誤判断が16%出現した。また,匿名状況であっても,集団としての成績が賞品獲得の手段になると教示された条件では,集団としての意識が高まり,同調率が高くなることが示された。現実場面では,厳密な意味で二つの影響を区別することは難しく,両者が絡み合って同調行動が生起している。情報的影響は,課題や行動の物理的実在性が曖昧なほど,重要になってくる。場合によっては,少数者の意味ある一貫した行動が多数者に影響を与える過程も存在する。 【社会的規範と同調行動】 集団における同調行動だけでなく,通行人という不特定多数の人びとに対しても同調行動は起きる。ミルグラムMilgram,S.,ビックマンBickman,L.とバーコウィッツBerkowitz,L.(1969)は,ニューヨークの繁華街の歩道で,通行人を装った実験協力者が特定区域で立ち止まり,通りの向かい側にあるビルの6階の窓を1分間見上げるという手続きを取った。すると,実験協力者(1人から15人の6条件)の人数の多さとともに,通行人が窓を見上げたり,立ち止まったりする同調行動の比率は上昇した。社会的状況における情報的影響のインパクトは,多数者であるほど効果は大きいと考えられる。こうした同調行動には,社会的証明の原理が働いているとも考えられる。たまたま繁華街を歩いていたら,ほかの通行人が立ち止まって通りの向こう側の窓を見上げているという不確実な状況に遭遇した場合,何が適切な行動かは,とりあえず多数者に従った方が良い結果が得られるといった判断に基づいている。それゆえ,多くの人が同じ行動をしているほど,社会的な妥当性が証明されていることになる。人びとの目の前で起きていなくても,多くの人が影響を受けていることを情報として提供するだけでも,同調行動は同じように起きうる。「女子中学生の間で大人気である」「多くの若いママさんたちに愛用されている」「8割の高校生が持っている」などといった広告情報は,そうしたカテゴリーに属している人たちに,同調行動を促す効果をもちうる。世論調査などで,ひとたびある方向の意見が優勢だと報じられると,少数派であると認知した人たちが優勢な意見に表面上同調し始める。すると,少数派だと認知した人たちはますます反対意見を述べられなくなり,多数派が見かけ上増加していく循環的過程が見られる。これを,ノエル・ノイマンNoele-Neumann,E.(1984)は,沈黙の螺旋理論と名づけている。 社会的証明の原理principle of social proofという概念を提唱したチャルディーニCialdini,R.B.(2001)は,社会的規範を命令的規範injunctive normと記述的規範descriptive normに分けている。命令的規範とは,人びとが望ましい評価を得るために取るべき行動(何をなすべきか)を示す規範であり,記述的規範とは,多くの人が取っている行動(何がなされているか)を示す規範である。お年寄りや体の不自由な人に席を譲る,というのは命令的規範であるが,周りのだれもがそしらぬ顔で席に座っていれば,席を譲らない行動が記述的規範となる。いわば,多くの他者は,自分がそしらぬ顔で座っていることの妥当性を社会的に証明してくれることになる。さらに,彼らは規範への焦点化が具体的な同調行動を生起させることを実証している。ゴミのポイ捨てを抑止するようなメッセージが書かれたチラシをもらっても,おかれた状況(記述的規範としてゴミが落ちている個数)を操作すると,命令的規範と記述的規範が一致しているきれいな環境状況では,チラシのポイ捨て行動は起きないが,ゴミがたくさん落ちている不一致な環境状況では,チラシのポイ捨て行動が頻発した。同調行動の抑止には,記述的規範を命令的規範に合致させるような努力が肝要である。 〔吉田 俊和〕 出典 最新 心理学事典最新 心理学事典について 情報 |
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