Swords - Touken

Japanese: 刀剣 - とうけん

A general term for katana (sword) and tsurugi (swords). A katana is used to cut things, while a tsurugi is a sharp, pointed tool for stabbing. Usually, katana are single-edged and tsurugi are double-edged. However, there are also single-edged swords such as the Western-style sabers and daggers used by soldiers and policemen after the Meiji period, and sword-equipped guns. Special shapes of katana and tsurugi include naginata (long swords) and spears. In terms of materials, there are ancient stone-made swords and decorative wooden swords such as those found in the Korekawa ruins of the late Jomon period in Japan. However, swords, which fulfill the practical mission of cutting and stabbing, have developed based on the manufacturing, processing, and treatment techniques of metals, especially copper (bronze) and iron (steel).

[Kenichi Iida]

Japanese Swords

The Japanese sword, an iron cultural asset perfected by the Japanese people, is known as a masterpiece of swords in the world. Japanese swords meet the most important requirements of a sword - they do not break, do not bend, and cut well - and are beautiful. C.S. Smith, a contemporary American metallurgist and technology historian, states that the finishing of Japanese swords is "the metallurgist's unsurpassed metal art." While Western Europe was quick to invent measuring instruments such as the microscope and established the science of metals, Japan, although it did not know the laws of physics or chemistry, developed excellent heat treatment techniques, such as forging and quenching, ahead of Western Europe, which are also excellent in metallography.

From an archaeological point of view, in the Yayoi period in Japan, cast copper swords were widely distributed mainly in the Kitakyushu region, and most of the narrow, thin ones were imported from Korea or China, while the wide, flat ones were Japanese products. They were mainly used as treasures or ritual implements, and were not for practical use. After the Kofun period, iron swords and iron swords were excavated side by side, and as time went on, iron swords became treasures for ceremonies and iron swords became practical swords. However, both iron swords and iron swords were all originally straight swords, and only ring-headed swords and warabi-te horizontal swords with a bracken-like handle are known. Ancient Japanese swords were influenced by the continent, as can be seen from the cultural properties of Todaiji Temple and Shosoin, such as Korean swords and Chinese-style swords. During the Heian period, the sword changed from straight to curved, and the prototype of the Japanese sword was created. Of course, the curve of the sword reflects a change in practical use from thrusting to slashing, and from cutting on horseback rather than on foot.

From the Heian period to the early Kamakura period, Japanese swords entered their golden age. One reason for this was that excellent carbon steel (tamahagane) with little impurities such as phosphorus and sulfur was produced in Japan, and another reason was that a forging technique was developed that made the most of the contradictory properties of soft steel that does not break and hard steel that cuts well without bending. Swords made before the Keicho era (1596-1615) are called koto, those made after that are called shinto, those made after the Bunka and Bunsei eras (1804-1830) are called shinshinto (returned swords), and those made after the Meiji era are called modern swords, but koto are superior in terms of sword-making technique and beauty. There are many research books on Japanese swords, including Tawara Kuniichi's "Scientific Study of the Japanese Sword" (1953).

[Kenichi Iida]

China

It has a long history and is found in a wide range of regions, with a variety of styles, but excavated weapons from the Yin dynasty consist mostly of spears and halberds, while in the Zhou dynasty, double-edged cast copper swords are found among many small knives. A double-edged bronze long sword has also been excavated from the tomb of the First Qin Emperor, but it is believed that iron swords were quite widespread during the Qin dynasty. In the Western Han dynasty, iron-making technology made great strides, and single-edged straight swords were found along with swords, and later, in the Sui and Tang dynasties, straight swords with a cutting blade were widely used. From the Southern Song dynasty to the Ming dynasty, in addition to double-edged swords, single-edged hand swords (blue dragon swords) and naginata such as curved swords, eyebrow-pointed swords, and cutting swords appeared. Also, during this period, a large number of Japanese swords were imported, and as a result, long swords with blades up to 1.5 meters long were made as the main weapons, and the swords on the waist were also characterized by a strong curve at the tip.

[Nobuo Ogasawara]

Western

Around 1200 BC, the Hittites began to use iron tools, and iron began to replace bronze in the manufacture of sharp objects. The swords used by ancient peoples in Egypt, Greece, Rome, and other places were short and mostly wide, double-edged swords. It is said that in Frankish society in the early Middle Ages, only those of high social status possessed long swords. However, among the relics from Sassanid Persia (around the 6th century), there are already gold-plated long swords similar to the gold and silver inlaid Tang dagger in Shosoin. In Europe during the Middle Ages, it became common to hang long swords from the waist belt.

Western swords are generally short-handled and used with one hand, and long-handled swords for use with two hands, like Japanese swords, are rare. Both short and long swords, with beautifully decorated exteriors, were used by kings and aristocrats, and there are swords with gold and silver sheaths and handles engraved with various precious stones. When armor became solid and heavy, covered entirely in iron, magnificent long swords were also created. These swords were used for stabbing or slashing, taking advantage of their size and weight, but in the 16th century, slender swords were created that are said to have been developed for aristocratic duels, and a martial art called fencing using these swords developed. On the other hand, sabers, which were mainly used by cavalrymen after the 16th century, were single-edged curved swords. In particular, after Louis XIV of France adopted them as cavalry swords, they became popular throughout Europe. The style can be seen as being influenced by the scimitars used by the Ottoman army in Türkiye.

[Nobuo Ogasawara]

"Japanese Art 6: Swords" edited by Sato Kanzan (1966, Shibundo)" ▽ "Reprint of "Scientific Research on Japanese Swords" by Tawara Kuniichi (1982, Hitachi Printing and Publishing Center)" ▽ "Iron Fairy Tales" by Nakazawa Morito (1975, Agne)"

[Reference item] | Seiryuto | Japanese sword

Types of Japanese Swords (Swords)
©Katsuya Nishikawa ">

Types of Japanese Swords (Swords)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

刀(かたな)と剣(つるぎ)の総称。刀は「物を断ち切る」もの、剣は「先の鋭くとがった突き刺す」利器のことで、普通、刀は片刃、剣は両刃である。しかし、明治以後の軍人や警官の西洋風サーベルや短剣、剣付鉄砲のように片刃の剣もある。特殊な形の刀や剣に、薙刀(なぎなた)や槍(やり)がある。素材の面では、古くは石器の刀剣や、日本の縄文晩期の是川(これかわ)遺跡出土品にみるような木製の飾り太刀(たち)もある。しかし、切る、刺すという実用上の使命を果たす武器としての刀剣は、金属、ことに銅（青銅）と鉄（鋼(はがね)＝刃鉄(はがね)）の製造、加工、処理技術を基礎に発達した。

［飯田賢一］

日本の刀剣

世界の刀の傑作として、日本民族が完成した鉄の文化財、日本刀が知られている。日本刀は、折れず、曲がらず、よく切れる、という刀の最大の条件を備えたうえに美しい。現代アメリカの金属学者で技術史家でもあるC・S・スミスは、日本刀の仕上げは「金属組織学者の卓絶した金属芸術である」と述べている。西欧が早く顕微鏡など測定器械を発明して金属の科学を成立させたのに対し、日本は物理や化学の法則は知らなかったが、西欧に先駆けて合わせ鍛え、焼入れなど、金属組織学的にもすばらしい熱処理の技術的知恵を生み出したのである。

　考古学からみると、日本の弥生(やよい)時代には、北九州地方を中心に鋳造銅剣が多く分布し、そのうち鋒(きっさき)の狭い細形のものは大部分朝鮮や中国の舶来品、広い鋒をもつ平形のものは和製品である。その用途はおもに宝器、祭器で、実用外のものであった。古墳時代以後は鉄剣と鉄刀が併存して出土し、時代の下るにつれ鉄剣は儀式用の宝器となり、鉄刀が実用刀となる。だが鉄剣も鉄刀も初めはすべて直刀で、環頭大刀(かんとうたち)や、蕨(わらび)の頭のような柄頭(つかがしら)をもつ蕨手(わらびて)の横刀(たち)が知られている。古代日本の刀剣は、東大寺や正倉院の文化財のなかに高麗剣(こまつるぎ)や唐様大刀(からようのたち)などがあるのでもわかるように、大陸の影響を受けている。平安時代に入るころからは、直刀から彎刀(わんとう)、つまり反りのある刀に移り、技術的にも日本刀の原型ができあがってゆく。もちろん刀剣の反りは、突く技(わざ)から薙(な)ぐ技へ、徒歩よりも馬上から切り下ろす場合への実用上の変化を示している。

　平安時代から鎌倉時代初期にかけて、日本刀は黄金時代を迎える。一つには、リン、硫黄(いおう)など不純物の少ない優秀な炭素鋼（玉鋼(たまはがね)）が日本でつくられたこと、もう一つは、折れない、軟らかい鋼と、曲がらないでよく切れる硬い鋼という相反する条件を総合的に生かす鍛錬の技術がくふうされたことによる。慶長(けいちょう)年間（1596～1615）以前の作を古刀、以後を新刀、さらに文化・文政期（1804～30）以後のものを新々刀（復古刀）、明治以後を現代刀と呼び分けるが、作刀の技術も美しさも古刀が優れている。日本刀に関しては、俵国一(くにいち)の『日本刀の科学的研究』（1953）をはじめ多数の研究書がある。

［飯田賢一］

中国

歴史も古く、地域も広範にわたっていて種々の様式がみられるが、殷(いん)代の武器の出土品には矛(ほこ)や戈(か)が多く、周代になると多くの小刀に混じって鋳銅製両刃剣がみられる。秦(しん)の始皇帝陵からは青銅製両刃の長刀も出土しているが、秦代にはかなり鉄製刀剣が普及したものと推察されている。前漢代には製鉄技術が長足の進歩を遂げ、剣とともに片刃の直刀もみられ、下って隋(ずい)・唐代には切刃造直刀が広く用いられた。南宋(なんそう)から明(みん)代にかけては、両刃の剣のほかに片刃の手刀（青竜刀）や、薙刀でも屈刀、眉尖刀(びせんとう)、掉刀(ちょうとう)などが現れた。またこの時期には日本刀が数多く輸入されたため、その影響もあって刃の長さ1.5メートルにも及ぶ長刀が主力武器としてつくられており、腰刀も先反りの強いところに特徴がある。

［小笠原信夫］

西洋

紀元前1200年ごろヒッタイト人によって鉄器が用いられ、青銅にかわって利器などに鉄が多く用いられるようになった。エジプト、ギリシア、ローマなど古代人の用いた刀剣は寸法の短いもので、いずれも身幅の広い両刃の剣が主であった。中世初頭フランク人の社会では、長剣は身分ある者だけがもったといわれる。しかし、すでにササン朝ペルシア（6世紀ごろ）の遺品には、正倉院の金銀鈿荘唐大刀(でんそうからだち)に近い黄金装の長剣がみえる。ヨーロッパでは中世に入ると、長剣を腰帯に吊(つ)るすことが普及していった。

　西洋の剣は片手で用いる短い柄(つか)のものが一般で、日本刀のように双手(もろて)用の長い柄のものはまれである。短剣にも長剣にも、外装を美しく飾った高級品が王や貴族の所用するところとなり、金銀の金属の鞘(さや)と柄に彫金を施し、種々の宝石を象眼(ぞうがん)したものがみられる。甲冑(かっちゅう)が全身を鉄で覆う堅牢(けんろう)重厚なものとなった時代には、刀剣も豪壮長寸のものが生まれている。これは大きさと重さを利用して突くか、たたき切るものであったが、16世紀には貴族の決闘用に発達したといわれる細身の剣が生まれ、これを用いたフェンシングとよばれる武技が発達している。一方、16世紀以後、主として騎兵が用いたサーベルは、片刃で反りのついた彎刀である。とくにフランスのルイ14世が騎兵用の剣として採用してからは、ヨーロッパ各国に普及している。この様式は、トルコのオスマン帝国軍が用いた半月刀の影響によるものとみることができる。

［小笠原信夫］

『佐藤寒山編『日本の美術 6　刀剣』（1966・至文堂）』▽『俵国一著『日本刀の科学的研究』復刻版（1982・日立印刷出版センター）』▽『中沢護人著『鉄のメルヘン』（1975・アグネ）』

[参照項目] | 青竜刀 | 日本刀

日本刀（刀剣）の種類

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

<<: Fighting dogs

>>: Freeze grinding