Tang Dynasty

Japanese: 唐 - とう

A Chinese dynasty (618-907). The imperial family was the Li family, with 14 generations and 20 generations. The capital was Chang'an. Luoyang was the eastern capital, and Taiyuan was the northern capital. This was the last period of the ancient Chinese empire, and the country's prestige spread to the surrounding areas, boasting the grandeur of a world empire.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

Historical Overview

Founded

The Li family of the Tang dynasty originated in Longxi and claimed to be descendants of the royal family of Xiliang (one of the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms), but they were a military family stationed in a military town on the northern border bordering Mongolia during the Northern Wei period, and were related by marriage to the Yuwen family of the Northern Zhou dynasty and the Yang family of the Sui dynasty, and also inherited northern elements through intermarriage with the Xianbei people. The Chinese historian Chen Yinke (1890-1969) named the Tang dynasty and the ruling group with which it was at its core the "Guanlong Group," a name that has been widely adopted in academic circles. They were a mixed-race Xianbei and Han aristocratic group that merged with the indigenous forces of the Shaanxi and Gansu regions throughout the 6th century. They excelled in military prowess and absorbed the traditional culture of northern China since the Han dynasty. The Sui dynasty, which overcame the divisions of the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties that had lasted for about 400 years and brought about a great unification once again, was on the verge of collapse in the final stages amid a raging wave of peasant uprisings due to the rapid collapse of centralization and the failure of the expedition to Goguryeo, and many warlords were divided into different regions. At that time, Li Yuan and his son were stationed in Taiyuan, a key defense point for the Turks, as guards in the absence of the Turks. They watched the situation in the world and raised their flag. With the support of the Turks, they advanced south, took control of Chang'an in a few months, and supported the Sui prince, Wang Yu. Soon after, they heard that Emperor Yang, who was visiting Jiangdu, had been rebelled against and assassinated by his bodyguards. Li Yuan forced him to take Zen and founded the Tang Dynasty. The name of the country, the Tang Dynasty, comes from the fact that the Li clan had been appointed Duke of Tang and Duke of Tang since the Northern Zhou Dynasty. Thanks to the efforts of Prince Jiancheng and his brother Shimin, within a few years, they pacified the warlords Wang Shichong, Li Mi, Dou Jiande, Liang Shidu, Xue Ju, Du Fuwei, Xiao Xuan and other warlords, and unified the country. The domestic slogan of the early Tang Dynasty was to abolish the tyranny of Emperor Yang and restore everything to the system established by Kaihuang at the beginning of the Sui Dynasty, and many of the Sui bureaucrats and intellectuals under the command of the warlords were absorbed into the new dynasty.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

The Jōgan Era

Li Shimin, who overthrew his elder brother Jiancheng and his younger brother Yuanji in the Xuanwu Gate Incident, succeeded his father as the second emperor (posthumously named Taizong), and made good use of such famous ministers as Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and Wei Zheng, striving to stabilize the people's livelihood and expand national prestige, ushering in the era of the Zhenguan rule. The so-called Ritsuryo system reached its completion with the compilation of the Zhenguan Ritsuryo Code and the subsequent Yonghui Ritsuryo Code and Commentary on Ritsuryo, and saw the development of a large empire based on a wide range of small peasants. Thanks to the efforts of such great generals as Li Jing and Li Ji, China defeated the Eastern Turks, the Tuyuhun, the Tiele tribes, and the Western Turks in succession, suppressed the Tibetans, and established forward bases in key locations in the Western Regions, such as Gaochang, Kucha, and Yutian, expanding its territory to an unprecedented extent since the Han Dynasty. Against this background, Xuanzang, who made a great journey to India in search of the law, and Wang Xuansek, who served as an envoy to India three times and became famous for his military exploits, also appeared. Taizong's personal campaign against Goguryeo also failed, but during the reign of the third emperor, Gaozong, China allied with the emerging Silla, first destroying Baekje, and then attacking from both sides, finally defeating Goguryeo. However, the resistance of the surviving people continued, and eventually Silla's rule was established on the Korean Peninsula, and some of the surviving people of Goguryeo eventually merged with the Mohe to form the Balhae Kingdom in the northeast. From the early Tang to the height of the Tang dynasty, the so-called "enclave policy" that guaranteed internal autonomy for various tribes and placed nominal control over prefectures and counties under the jurisdiction of the Protectorate was generally successful, and under the Six Protectorates system, the world empire continued to prosper, and trade flourished.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

Wu Shuu Revolution

During this time, Emperor Gaozong's wife, Wu Zetian (Empress Wu Zetian), used cunning to become empress, eventually exerting influence over the imperial power, and finally establishing the Zhou Dynasty (690-705) as the only female emperor in Chinese history. Evaluations of Empress Wu are divided into extremes, good and bad, but considering the historical context in which the rule of the aristocratic bureaucrats since the Six Dynasties period had reached a deadlock, new civil servants had advanced, and as the social and economic situation stabilized, landlords and merchants had gained power and were gradually opposing the traditional system, Empress Wu's extraordinary servants and policies that ignored old laws can be seen as having played a certain positive role. Even after the end of the Wu Empress regime, princesses such as Empress Wei of Zhongzong, Princess Anle, and Princess Taiping continued to interfere in the government, leading to decadence in national politics, but they were swept away by Li Longji (posthumously named Xuanzong) in a coup d'état (710), and with Xuanzong's accession to the throne, the splendor of the prosperous Tang dynasty began.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

Kaiyuan and Tianbao Period

During the Kaiyuan period, led by such famous ministers as Yao Chong, Song Jing, Zhang Shuo, and Zhang Jiuling, they dealt with growing social contradictions such as a shortage of arable land due to population growth, exploitation of farmers by merchants and usurers, an increase in households fleeing the country, the collapse of the Fubin system, which unified soldiers and farmers, a sharp increase in those seeking government service, the luxury of the upper classes and the gap between the rich and the poor, and other problems, aiming to return to the country's original Zhenguan system and promoting reactionary policies against the trends of the Wu Empress period. On the other hand, in order to respond to social changes, they appointed practical bureaucrats with excellent professional skills, and under the guise of the Ritsuryo system, they formed a unique new national system that responded to the fluidity of households and the penetration of the distribution economy - an increase in the number of posts, increased tax collection, payment of fees, the spread of the conscription system, and reforms to shipping. During the latter part of Xuanzong's reign, the Tianbao period, the emperor's lax government affairs in his old age and his romance with Yang Guifei, the sole authority of the notoriously corrupt ministers Li Linfu and Yang Guozhong, the system of ten border defense divisions and the emphasis on feudal generals, etc., caused the overwhelming strength of the center to waver, and the weight of local powers to increase, leading to a serious crisis. There is a reason why historians traditionally mark the period between Kaiyuan and Tianbao as a dividing line between rise and fall.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

An Lushan Rebellion

In the Western Regions, the country was defeated by the Abbasid forces advancing eastward in the Battle of Talas River (751), and externally it also began to decline, until in 755, to the sound of the "war drums of Yuyang" (the name of a county in Hebei Province, the base of An Lushan), the An Lushan Rebellion broke out, leading to tens of thousands of Han and barbarian soldiers, bringing about a dramatic change in the political situation. The central government and regular army, accustomed to peace, were unable to resist the rebel forces, and Luoyang and Chang'an were occupied. Xuanzong fled to Sichuan, and on the way Yang Guozhong and his concubine were massacred by enraged soldiers as the source of the unrest. Meanwhile, the Tang Dynasty, which secured the Yangtze River basin through the efforts of Yan Zhenqing and others to fight against the rebellion and Xu Yuan to defend the fortress of Suiyang, attempted to restructure its system under the leadership of Suzong, who ascended to the throne in the northwest, and took advantage of the fact that the rebel generals were replaced one after another by An Lushan, An Qingxu, Shi Siming, and Shi Chaoyi due to internal strife, and managed to put down the rebellion by relying on reinforcements from the Uighurs. However, through these nearly ten years of turmoil, the ruling system of the early Tang period received a decisive blow, the Ritsuryo system of control over the people collapsed completely, and military divisions among local forces came to the surface. Furthermore, taking advantage of the opportunity given to the mobilization of border defense forces to suppress the rebellion, the outside tribes gained military dominance, with the Tubo sweeping through Hexi and even invading as far as Chang'an for a time, completely driving the Tang forces out of the Western Regions. In the northern desert, the Huihu, who replaced the Turks, reached their zenith, taking advantage of the Tang's aid to China with troops and horses, and inflicting economic hardship on the Tang dynasty through the silk and horse trade. In the southwest, the Nanzhao often showed signs of invasion, and from the second half of the 8th century onwards the dominance of the Han people was completely reversed, ushering in a period of active activity by the surrounding tribes.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

The Rise of the Settushi

During the An Lushan Rebellion, military governors were stationed in various parts of the country, and they served as inspectors in charge of civil affairs. They summoned literati to their ranks, and established branch offices under the rank of Chinsho (chief general) with the Ya army at its core. They built up a strong ruling power and often rebelled against the Tang dynasty. Financially, they withheld the majority of the two taxes as retained envoys and provinces, and only submitted one-third to the central government. They also arbitrarily imposed customs and commercial taxes within their territories, while forcing the central government to provide military supplies for their soldiers, putting the Tang dynasty in a difficult position. In particular, in the three prefectures of Weibo, Youzhou, and Chengde in the Heshuo region, which was the base of the rebellion, hereditary succession of feudal commanders was realized, and the region became semi-independent. Thus, from the mid-Tang dynasty onwards, the conflict and struggle between the central authority of the dynasty and the powerful feudal domains became the mainstream of politics and military affairs, and the appeasement policies of Emperor Dezong were replaced by the repressive policies of Emperor Xianzong, and the Tang dynasty continued to exist for another century with its main bases in Guanzhong and Jiangnan.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

Twilight of the Ancient Empire

In the central government, the three ministries and six departments became mere formalities, the power of the interior ministers, such as the Hanlin scholars, was rivalled by that of the outer court, and the eunuchs who served the emperor held real political power, leading the Shenze Army (one of the Northern Government's Imperial Guards) and even becoming involved in military affairs, such as supervising the military as military inspectors. All of the emperors of the middle and late Tang dynasties were supported by eunuchs, so they were called "the state elders who were determined to be the state elders" and "the son of heaven who was born to them" (eunuchs were the state elders who acted as examiners, and the son of heaven was the examiner whose stature was decided by them). Under these circumstances, the central government bureaucrats formed factions through the imperial examinations, leading to the famous Niu-Li party strife, and fluid positions and administrative methods became evident, showing a tendency toward medieval bureaucratic control after the Song dynasty. Compared to the period before the height of the Tang Dynasty, the scale of the nation's power had halved and the authority of the central government had declined relatively, but such notable prime ministers as Lu Ci, Pei Du, Li Deyu, and Niu Sengru emerged, who strengthened ties with local landlords, wealthy merchants, and intellectuals, and worked to maintain the Tang dynasty, creating periods of stability that were praised for their restoration, such as the Yuanhe period under Emperor Xianzong (806-820) and the Dazhong period under Emperor Xuanzong (847-859). These conflicts between the bureaucrats of the outer courts and the eunuchs continued until the end of the Tang Dynasty, with political upheavals such as the Ganlu Incident (835) in between. In the provinces, key transportation and trade hubs such as Yangzhou along the Yangtze River, Chengdu in the Sichuan Basin, and Guangzhou in southern China became extremely prosperous, the circulation of currency spread to rural areas, profits from monopolies on salt, tea, and alcohol became the main source of financial income, the traditional city system in urban areas was broken down, and business freedom increased. These and other changes were quietly progressing, and gradually medieval patterns began to appear in socio-economic aspects as well.

In order to feed their soldiers, the feudal governors subjected the peasants and merchants in their jurisdictions to harsh exploitation, which deepened the resentment of the people, and in the military there was a constant stream of unrest among the ruling elite. The decentralization and diversification of political power led to further confusion in the political situation. After the rebellions of Qiu Fu and Pang Xun, the Qianfu period of Emperor Xizong (874-879) was marked by disasters and famines, and finally a large-scale peasant rebellion by Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao broke out. As raiders migrated across the country, a wide range of the people rose up in resistance. The salt privatists, who had solidarity with the residents suffering under the monopoly, became the core of this rebellion, and with the addition of low-ranking soldiers and starving people, they occupied Chang'an for a time and showed signs of commanding the whole world, but powerful feudal commanders, especially Li Keyong, who was of Turkish Shatuo tribe, followed Xizong and did their best to suppress the rebellion, and the peasant army collapsed due to internal divisions. After that, Zhu Wen (later the ancestor of the Later Liang Dynasty of the Five Dynasties), who was a subordinate of Huang Chao and controlled the key area of Bianzhou, gained power, eventually rounding up the eunuchs in one fell swoop and seizing real power, and finally, following the Zen of the Tang Dynasty, the transition to a new phase of the Five Dynasties era began.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

system

The Tang dynasty's ruling system, which was based on a three-tiered rank system of officials from the first rank to the ninth rank (inner rank, outer rank, and miscellaneous positions), had an excellent systematization of laws and regulations and formal consistency, and its consistent document-based approach made it an effective governing technique, and was passed down to neighboring East Asian countries. The Secretariat, which drafted imperial edicts as orders from the emperor, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, which was responsible for reviewing and examining petitions and draft imperial edicts, and the Ministry of Secretariat, which served as the administrative center consisting of the Six Departments of Officials, Households, Rites, Military Affairs, Criminal Affairs, and Works, and the Tosho, or Left and Right Offices, which oversaw them, were the three ministries at the center of the government.The government aimed to ensure thorough control of the empire through central administrative agencies such as the Nine Temples and Five Superintendents, the Imperial Guard, with its Twelve Guards, approximately 300 prefectures and over a thousand counties in 10 to 15 provinces across the country, and approximately 600 negotiating offices. During the heyday of the Tang Dynasty, the number of registered households was nearly 10 million, and the vast empire had a population of 50 million. In theory, it was governed by a staff of 2,300 capital officials within the Ryu region (including approximately 300 aristocratic officials of the fifth rank or higher), 10,500 foreign officials within the Ryu region, a total of 50,000 and other lower-ranking officials outside the Ryu region, and approximately 300,000 low-level officials and other miscellaneous workers.

In the early Tang dynasty, the chiefs of the three ministries were appointed as the Prime Minister, who oversaw national affairs and made policy decisions, while in the heyday of the Tang dynasty, several high-ranking officials who received the Emperor's delegation from the Zhongshumen's Political Affairs Hall, carried the heads of the Tongpingzhangji and other officials, and made government decisions by consensus. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the early structure of the Three Ministries, Six Departments, and Twenty-Four Secretaries gradually became a mere formality, and positions appointed by temporary dispatch developed, with finances in particular being managed mainly by the Banhubu, Duzhishi, and Yantieshi, and eventually these were combined to form the Three Secretaries in the Five Dynasties. In the appointment of officials, the Jinshi class, which mainly tested literary talent in poetry and fu, was given greater importance, and it came to replace those who came from the Yin clan based on their ancestors' official ranks and those in the Mingjing class, which mainly required memorization of classics, and in the later period, the majority of Prime Ministers and Scholars were from the Jinshi class. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the practice of appointing people to positions below the rank of military governor by hekisho (inviting talented people and appointing them as subordinates) became common, and even the practice of merchants and local lords occupying nominal posts in government offices became popular in order to be exempt from official taxes and duties.

The network of people's control through prefectures, counties, and hometowns covered the whole country, and based on the standard of 100 households per ri and 5 ri per town, a household census was prepared every year based on the declarations of the head of the household, and every three years a household register was prepared covering all households and the land that each household had already received, and was reported to the central government. A system of equalization of land was established, in which a certain area of land was allocated to each person, with the focus on the cheng (successful towns). In response to this, a tax system was established in which each man in the cheng (successful towns) was taxed annually at 2 koku (tax) of millet, 2 stalks (8 jo), 3 ryo (tax) of cotton, or 2 ends (10 jo), and 3 jin (tax) of hemp thread. Although it was difficult to implement the land allocation except in some areas, the tax was actually collected. In the areas where the negotiating offices were located, centered on the two capitals, the cheng (successful towns) were assigned to one soldier for every 3 cheng, and they were sent in shifts to guard the palace in the capital and to defend the borders. In the local prefectures and counties, a maximum of 50 days (40 days in some sources) of labor was imposed on the Ding and Zhong men as miscellaneous labor. These early systems collapsed during the prosperous Tang period, and a major transformation took place in 780 with the abolition of the tax system and the establishment of the Two Tax Laws. As a result, the subject of taxation changed from the people to the land, and the centralized finances, which had previously been entirely managed by the central government, were strengthened in local autonomy and were divided into three parts: the Liuzhou and Liushi, and the Shanggu, in response to the situation of division of the district towns. The later division and conflict of the foreign towns brought heavy taxes, but at the same time, it promoted the production of specialty products and developed the distribution economy and trade, leading to the growth of important industries such as ceramics from the Yuezhou kilns and the Copper Official Kilns, paper and stationery from Huizhou and Shu, iron from Bingzhou, and copper from southern China.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

culture

The Tang Dynasty, which marked the completion of ancient imperial culture, was a golden age of diversity in the fields of religion, literature, and art. With the imperial commission of the Five Classics of the Early Tang Dynasty, the study of the classics was inevitably drained of its intellectual vitality, but with the backdrop of an abundance of translations and translations, Buddhism produced the finest talents, producing a diverse range of Chinese teaching systems, including Jizang's Sanron, Zhiyi's Tiantai, Xuanzang's Fasso, Daoxuan's Vinaya, Fazang's Kegon, and Zendo's Jodo. From the 8th century onwards, various Zen sects in the north and south were active. Taoism, which gained the patronage of the Tang Dynasty, also grew to its peak during the Tianbao period under Xuanzong, and eventually organized the Daozang following the example of the Shakya. Literature was particularly influential in later generations, and Tang poetry is considered the quintessence of Chinese literature. Great poets such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Wang Wei, and Bai Juyi competed with each other, and nearly 50,000 works remain to this day. In addition, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan of the mid-Tang Dynasty rejected the rhetorical techniques of the Six Dynasties and promoted classical Japanese, which led to the spread of a new literary style. At the same time, fantastic novels also became popular, and the spread of variegated writing aimed at educating the common people was seen, and literature became accepted by a wider range of classes. After the mid-Tang dynasty, new trends began to emerge in culture in response to changes in society. Even in the most traditional classical Chinese studies, Liu Zongyuan and others pioneered critical examination of the scriptures, and Li Huan and others absorbed and integrated Zen thought, which became the origin of Song studies. In the academic field, Du You's "Tongdian," a model for institutional history, and Jia Tan's geography maps were produced, and paintings gave way to the colorful and gorgeous murals of the previous era, and monochrome ink painting techniques that valued spirit developed and the appreciation of small pieces spread. In calligraphy, a trend that reached classical perfection in the early Tang dynasty with Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun, and Chu Suiliang, came to prominence under Yan Zhenqing, who began to emphasize willful expression rather than symmetry. As the bearers of culture spread from the aristocracy to the scholar-officials and then to wealthy commoners, its nature also changed.

On the other hand, the Tang Dynasty was the heyday of cultural exchange between the East and the West, and many foreigners came to China, including the guards, envoys, and foreign generals, who flocked to both capitals and major cities, many of whom served in the government and achieved notable accomplishments. Representative examples of this include the father and son Yuchi, who were famous for their embossed paintings, Qudan Shida, who taught the Indian calendar system, Shanwuwei, who introduced esoteric Buddhism, and Amoghavajra, the Japanese Abe no Nakamaro (Chokyo), who rose to a high position and made friends with poets such as Wang Wei and Li Bai, leaving their names in history.

In the early Tang Dynasty, princes fled from Sassanid Persia, and three western religions, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Nestorian Christianity, were introduced via Central Asia, and Yi temples were built in several cities, including Chang'an, and the scriptures of Manichaeism and Nestorian Christianity were translated into Chinese. These foreign religions flourished under the protection of foreign residents, but they were severely suppressed during the anti-Buddhist era of Huichang in the 9th century, and disappeared from the surface. As negotiations with the Islamic world deepened through trade with the South Seas, Islamic merchant residential areas known as fanfangs were established in Guangzhou and other places. In addition, foreign elements were abundantly incorporated into the cultures closely related to daily life, such as music, dance, games, and food and drink, and exoticism was extremely prevalent.

[Atsushi Ikeda]

"The History of China 4: The Sui and Tang Dynasties" by Nunome Shiosuke and Kurihara Masuo (1974, Kodansha) " "Illustrated History of China 4: The Magnificent Sui and Tang Dynasties" edited by Hibino Tsuyoshi (1977, Kodansha) " "D. Twitchett ed. The Cambridge History of China vol. 3, Sui and T'ang. Part 1 (1979, Cambridge Univ. Press.)"

Tang Dynasty (Li Dynasty) / Brief family tree
©Shogakukan ">

Tang Dynasty (Li Dynasty) / Brief family tree

Map of the Tang Dynasty (669)
©Shogakukan ">

Map of the Tang Dynasty (669)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国の王朝（618～907）。帝室は李(り)氏、14世代20代を数え、首都は長安。洛陽(らくよう)を東都、太原(たいげん)を北都とした。中国古代帝国の最後を飾る時代で、国威は周辺に広がり世界帝国の偉容を誇った。

［池田　温］

歴史概観

創業

唐室の李氏は隴西(ろうせい)を本貫とし、西涼（五胡十六国の一つ）の王室の裔(えい)を称するが、北魏(ほくぎ)時代モンゴリアと接する北辺の軍鎮に駐屯していた軍人の家柄で、北周の宇文氏、隋(ずい)の楊氏と姻戚(いんせき)関係にあり、鮮卑(せんぴ)族と通婚して北族的要素も受け継いでいた。唐室やそれを中核とする支配者集団を、中国の歴史家陳寅恪(ちんいんかく)（1890―1969）は「関隴(かんろう)集団」と名づけ、広く学界で採用されている。彼らは6世紀を通じ陝西(せんせい)、甘粛(かんしゅく)地方の土着勢力と融合した鮮卑・漢混血貴族グループで、武勇に優れ、漢代以来の華北の伝統文化を吸収していた。約400年続いた魏晋(ぎしん)南北朝の分裂を克服し、ふたたび大統一をもたらした隋朝が、急速な中央集権化の破綻(はたん)と高句麗(こうくり)遠征の失敗によって、末期は農民蜂起(ほうき)の怒濤(どとう)のなかで崩壊に瀕(ひん)し、各地に群雄が割拠した。当時、突厥(とっけつ)防衛の要衝太原に留守(りゅうしゅ)として駐在した李淵(りえん)父子は、天下の形勢をうかがい旗揚げし、突厥の援助を得て南進、数か月で長安を抑え、隋の皇子代王侑(ゆう)を擁立した。まもなく江都に遊幸中の煬帝(ようだい)が親衛隊の叛(はん)にあい弑(しい)されたと聞くと、受禅を強要して李淵（諡(おくりな)高祖）が唐朝を創建した。唐朝の国号は、北周以来李氏が唐郡公・唐国公に封ぜられたのにちなむ。太子建成と世民兄弟の活躍により、数年間のうちに王世充、李密、竇建徳(とうけんとく)、梁師都(りょうしと)、薛挙(せっきょ)、杜伏威(とふくい)、蕭銑(しょうせん)ら群雄を平定、全国を統一した。唐初の内政のスローガンは、煬帝の暴政を廃しすべて隋初の開皇の制に復帰することであり、隋の官僚や群雄配下の知識人も多く新王朝に吸収された。

［池田　温］

貞観の治

兄の建成と弟の元吉を玄武門の変により打倒した李世民は、父の禅を受け2代皇帝（諡は太宗(たいそう)）となり、房玄齢(ぼうげんれい)、杜如晦(とじょかい)、魏徴(ぎちょう)らの名臣をよく用い、民生安定と国威伸張に努め、貞観の治を現出した。いわゆる律令(りつれい)体制は貞観律令と引き続く永徽(えいき)律令・律疏(りつそ)の編纂(へんさん)を通じ完成期を迎え、広範な小農民を基礎とする大帝国の充実をみた。李靖(りせい)、李勣(りせき)ら名将の活躍により東突厥、吐谷渾(とよくこん)、鉄勒(てつろく)諸部、西突厥を相次いで撃破し、吐蕃(とばん)を抑え、高昌(こうしょう)から亀茲(きじ)（クチャ）、于闐(うてん)（ホータン）など西域(せいいき)の要地に前進基地を置き、漢代以来空前の版図を広げた。このような背景の下に、インドへ求法(ぐほう)の大旅行をした玄奘(げんじょう)や、三度インドに使者となり武功で名をあげた王玄策も現れた。高句麗に対しては太宗の親征も失敗したが、3代高宗期に新興の新羅(しらぎ)と連合してまず百済(くだら)を滅ぼし、腹背から攻撃を加えついに高句麗を倒した。しかし遺民の抵抗はなお続き、結局朝鮮半島では新羅の支配が確立し、高句麗遺民の一部はやがて靺鞨(まっかつ)と合流して東北に渤海(ぼっかい)国を形成するに至る。初唐から盛唐まで、各種族の内部自治を保障し、都護府の管轄下に名目的な州県支配を行ういわゆる羈縻(きび)政策はおおむね功を奏し、六都護府体制の下に世界帝国の繁栄が続き、通商は隆盛を極めた。

［池田　温］

武周革命

この間、高宗の妃武照（則天武后）は、術策を弄(ろう)して皇后となり、やがて帝権をも左右し、ついに中国史上唯一の女帝として周朝（690～705）を建てた。武后の評価は善悪極端に分かれているが、六朝(りくちょう)以来の貴族官僚の支配が行き詰まり、新しい文臣官僚が進出し、また社会経済の安定につれて地主や商人が勢力を伸ばし伝統的体制にしだいに対抗するようになった時代状況を考えると、武后の破格の用人や旧来の法度を無視した諸施策も一定の積極的役割を果たしたとみなされよう。武后政権がついえたあとも、中宗の韋(い)后や安楽公主、太平公主らプリンセスの政権干渉が続き、国政は退廃したが、李隆基（諡は玄宗(げんそう)）のクーデター（710）により彼女らは一掃され、やがて玄宗の即位とともに盛唐の華やかな幕が開かれた。

［池田　温］

開元・天宝の治

姚崇(ようすう)、宋璟(そうえい)、張説(ちょうえつ)、張九齢ら名相にリードされた開元の時代は、人口増による耕地不足、商人高利貸などの農民収奪、逃戸の増加、兵農一致の府兵制の崩壊、仕官希望者の激増、上流の奢侈(しゃし)と貧富の懸隔など、増大する社会矛盾に対処して、国初の貞観の制への復帰を目ざし、武后期の潮流に対してむしろ反動的政策を推進した。一方、社会の変化に対応するため、専門能力に優れる実務官僚を登用し、律令制の外皮の下で、戸口の流動や流通経済の浸透に応ずる異質な新国制――使職の増加、税銭増徴、料銭支給、徴募兵制の普及、漕運(そううん)の改革――が形成されていった。玄宗治世の後半の天宝時代は、老境に入った帝の政務弛緩(しかん)と楊貴妃(ようきひ)とのロマンス、姦臣(かんしん)の聞こえ高い李林甫(りりんぽ)・楊国忠らの専権、辺防十節度使体制と藩将の重用などにより、中央の圧倒的強みが揺らぎ、地方勢力の比重が高まる形勢となり、深刻な危機が進行した。伝統的に史家が開元・天宝の間に時代のくぎりを置き、上昇下降の分界としたのも理由がある。

［池田　温］

安史の乱

西域ではタラス川の戦い（751）で東進するアッバース朝勢力に敗れ、対外的にも退勢に向かい、755年「漁陽（河北省の郡名、安禄山(あんろくざん)の根拠地）の兵鼓」をどよもして十数万の漢・蕃兵を率いる安禄山の反乱が勃発(ぼっぱつ)し政局は激変した。太平に慣れた中央政府や正規軍は叛軍に対抗しえず、洛陽、長安も占領され、玄宗は四川(しせん)に逃れ、途上で楊国忠と貴妃は激高した兵士により、禍乱の源として血祭りにあげられた。一方、反乱に対抗して顔真卿(がんしんけい)らが義兵をあげ、許遠が睢陽(すいよう)の守城に死力を尽くすなどにより揚子江(ようすこう)流域を確保した唐朝は、西北で即位した粛宗(しゅくそう)の指導下に体制の立て直しを図り、叛軍将帥が内訌(ないこう)により安禄山、安慶緒、史思明、史朝儀と次々に交代したのにつけこみ、回紇(かいこつ)（ウイグル）の援兵を頼って乱の平定にこぎ着けた。しかし10年近いこの動乱を通じ唐前期の支配体制は決定的打撃を受け、律令制的人民支配は全面的に破綻(はたん)し、在地勢力による軍事的割拠が表面化した。さらに反乱討伐に辺防軍が動員されたすきをついて、外族が軍事的に優勢を占め、吐蕃が河西を席巻(せっけん)して一時長安まで侵入し、唐の勢力は西域からまったく駆逐された。漠北では突厥にかわった回紇が全盛となり、唐への兵馬援助につけこみ回紇人が華北に進駐し、また絹馬交易を通じ経済的に唐朝を苦しめた。西南では南詔がしばしば侵入の勢いを示し、8世紀後半以降はそれまでの漢族優位が全面的に逆転し、周辺諸民族の積極的活動期を迎えた。

［池田　温］

節度使の台頭

安史の乱中に内地各所にも兵権を握る節度使が列置され、民政をつかさどる観察使などを兼ね、文人を幕下に召すとともに、牙（衙）(が)軍を中核とし鎮将以下の出先機関を設け、強力な支配権力を築いてしばしば唐朝に反抗するようになった。財政的にも両税の過半を留使・留州として保留し、中央へは3分の1しか上供せず、また領内でかってに通関商税などを賦課しながら、兵士の軍糧を中央に強要するなどして唐朝を窮迫させた。なかでも反乱の本拠となった河朔(かさく)地方の魏博(ぎはく)・幽州・成徳の三鎮では藩帥の世襲が実現し半独立地帯となった。かくて中唐以降は王朝中央権力と有力藩鎮の対立抗争が政治・軍事の主流となり、徳宗の宥和(ゆうわ)策にかわって憲宗の強圧策が採用され、唐は関中と江南などをおもな地盤としてなお1世紀存続した。

［池田　温］

古代帝国のたそがれ

中央では三省六部が形骸(けいがい)化し、翰林(かんりん)学士ら内相の権力が外朝に拮抗(きっこう)し、そのうえ、皇帝に近侍する宦官(かんがん)が政治的実権を握り、神策軍（北衙(ほくが)禁軍の一）を率い、監軍使として出征軍を監察するなど兵権にさえ関与するようになった。中・晩唐の皇帝はみな宦官の擁立により帝位に上ったので、「定策国老」「門生天子」（宦官が試験官にあたる国家の元老で、天子は彼らに及落を決められる受験生の意）といわれた。かかる情勢下に中央官僚は科挙を媒介として党派をつくり、名高い牛李の党争が起こり、流動的な職任や行政方式が目だつようになり、宋(そう)以後の中世的官僚支配への傾斜を示した。盛唐以前に比し国勢規模は減半し中央の権威も相対的に衰えたが、陸贄(りくし)、裴度(はいど)、李徳裕、牛僧孺(ぎゅうそうじゅ)ら著名な宰相が輩出し、在地に根を張る地主土豪層や富商・知識人らと連係を深め、唐朝の維持に努め、憲宗の元和年間（806～820）や宣宗の大中年間（847～859）のような中興をうたわれる安定期を生み出した。これら外朝の官僚と宦官の抗争は甘露の変（835）のような政変を挟みながら唐末に及んだ。地方では揚子江沿いの揚州や四川盆地の成都、華南の広州など、交通貿易の要衝は非常な繁栄をみせ、貨幣流通も農山村に浸透し、塩をはじめ茶・酒に及ぶ専売の利益が財政収入の主流となり、城市の伝統的市制が崩れて営業の自由が増すといった変化が静かに進行し、社会経済面でも中世的様相が漸次姿を現した。

　藩鎮は兵士の給養のため過酷な収奪を管内の農民・商人に加えたので人民の怨嗟(えんさ)は深まり、軍隊では下剋上(げこくじょう)の紛乱が後を絶たず、政治権力の分散多元化は政局をますます混迷に陥れた。やがて裘甫(きゅうほ)・龐勛(ほうくん)の乱を経て僖宗(きそう)の乾符年間（874～879）に至り、災害の飢饉(ききん)も伴い、ついに王仙芝(おうせんし)・黄巣の大農民反乱が起こり、流寇(りゅうこう)が全国的規模で移動しつつ広範な民衆を抵抗に立ち上がらせた。専売に苦しむ住民と連帯関係にある私塩の徒がこの乱の中核となり、下級兵士や飢民を加えて一時は長安を占領し天下に号令する勢いをみせたものの、有力藩帥、とくにトルコ系沙陀(さだ)族出身の李克用らが僖宗に従って討伐に力を尽くしたので、内部分裂もあって農民軍は瓦解(がかい)した。その後は黄巣の部下で汴(べん)州の要地を押さえた朱温（のち五代後梁(こうりょう)の太祖）の勢力が強まり、やがて宦官を一網打尽にして実権を握り、ついに唐の禅を受けて五代の新局面に移行した。

［池田　温］

制度

律（刑法）、令(れい)（行政法）、格(かく)（律令を補訂する勅令集）、式（官庁の例規・書式）が整備され、正一品(せいいっぴん)～従九品(じゅうきゅうひん)の流内、流外、雑任の3段階よりなる身分官人制を基軸とした唐の支配体制は、優れて法規の体系性と形式的整合性を備え、一貫した文書主義により統治技術として実効をあげ、周辺の東アジア諸国にまで継受された。皇帝の命令たる詔勅の起草にあたる中書省、上奏・詔勅案の審査検討に任ずる門下省、そして吏・戸・礼・兵・刑・工の六部(りくぶ)とそれを統括する左右司の都省よりなる行政中枢としての尚書省、以上三省を中心に、九寺、五監などの中央行政官庁、十二衛以下の近衛(きんえい)軍、全国10～15道の約300府州、千数百県に及ぶ地方行政機構と約600の折衝府(せっしょうふ)を通じ、帝国支配の貫徹を期した。盛唐の登籍戸数1000万に近く、人口5000万を数える大帝国は、流内京官二千数百人（うち五品以上の貴族官人約300人）、流内の外官一万数千人、流外その他下級吏員内外計五万数千人、そして底辺の雑任など職掌人約30万人の定員で統治されるたてまえであった。

　国政を総括し政策決定を行う宰相には、初唐は三省の長官が任じ、盛唐では中書門下の政事堂で皇帝の委任を受けた数名の高官が同平章事などの銜(かん)を帯び合議により政務を決した。安史の乱後、前期の三省六部二十四司の機構は漸次形骸化し、臨時の差遣により任ぜられる使職が発達し、ことに財政は判戸部、度支使、塩鉄使の三者を中心に運用され、やがてこれらが合体して五代には三司使が成立した。官人任用には、詩賦(しふ)の文才をおもに試験する進士科が重視され、父祖の官品による蔭(おん)の出身や経書の暗記を主とする明経科を押しのけるようになり、後期の宰相や学士の主流は進士出身者が占めるようになった。安史の乱後は、節度使以下の使職の辟召(へきしょう)（人材を招いて部下に任命すること）による任用が一般化し、さらに公課や役務を免れるため、商人・土豪などが官庁に名目的ポストを占める影庇(えいひ)さえ盛行をみるに至る。

　州県郷里を通ずる人民支配の網の目は全国を覆い、100戸1里、5里1郷を基準に毎年戸主の申告に基づいて計帳をつくり、また3年ごとに全戸口と各戸の已受田土(いじゅでんど)を網羅する戸籍を作製して中央に申報させた。成丁(せいてい)を中心に一定面積の田土を班給する均田制が定められ、それに対応して丁男1人当り毎年粟(あわ)2石（租）と絹2匹（8丈）、綿(まわた)3両あるいは麻布2端（10丈）、麻糸3斤（庸調）を徴収する税制が行われた。給田は一部の地域を除き実施困難であったにもかかわらず、徴収は実現された。両京を中心とする折衝府配置地域では3丁に1人の割で府兵が差点され、交代で首都の宮衛警備に上番し、また国境の防備に派遣された。地方州県では年間50日（一説40日）以内の力役が雑徭(ざつよう)として丁男と中男に課された。これら前期の諸制度は盛唐期に崩れ、780年に租庸調廃止と両税法の制定により大転換を遂げた。これにより課税対象は人丁から田地にかわり、従来すべて中央の差配にまった集権的財政は、以降在地の自主性が強化され、地方の留州・留使と上供に三分され、節鎮の分立の形勢に対応した。後期の蕃鎮の分立抗争は重税をもたらしたが、同時に特産品の生産を促し流通経済や貿易も発達し、越州窯・銅官窯の陶磁器、徽(き)州や蜀(しょく)の紙・文具、并(へい)州の鉄、華南の銅など重要産業の成長をみた。

［池田　温］

文化

古代王朝文化の完成を迎えた唐代は、宗教・文学・美術各分野に多彩な黄金時代であった。初唐の『五経正義』欽定(きんてい)により、経学は思想的生命力の枯渇を免れなかったのに対し、伝訳の充実を背景として仏教は最高の人材を輩出し、吉蔵(きちぞう)の三論、智顗(ちぎ)の天台、玄奘(げんじょう)の法相(ほっそう)、道宣の律、法蔵の華厳(けごん)、善導の浄土と多彩な中国的教学体系を産出し、8世紀以降は南北の禅宗諸派が旺盛(おうせい)な活動を展開した。唐室の庇護(ひご)を得た道教も玄宗の天宝期をピークに伸張し、釈蔵に倣って道蔵を編成するに至る。後世への影響のとくに大きかったのは文学で、唐詩は中国文学の精華とされ、李白(りはく)、杜甫(とほ)、王維(おうい)、白居易(はくきょい)ら大詩人が競い起こり、今日まで5万首近い作品を伝存する。また中唐の韓愈(かんゆ)、柳宗元(りゅうそうげん)らが六朝以来の修辞技巧の勝った駢文(べんぶん)を排し、達意の古文を鼓吹してから新しい文風が広まり、同時に伝奇小説も流行し、庶民教化をねらう語物（変文）の普及がみられ、より広い階層に文学が受け入れられるようになった。中唐以降社会の変質に呼応して文化にも新傾向が芽生え、もっとも伝統的な経学にあっても経典に対する批判的検討が柳宗元らを先駆けとしておこり、また李翺(りこう)らによる禅家思想の摂取融合は、宋学の源流となった。学術面でも、制度史の範をなす杜佑(とゆう)の『通典(つてん)』や、賈耽(かたん)の地志地図が生まれ、絵画も前代の彩色絢爛(けんらん)たる壁画にかわり、心意を重んずる単色の水墨技法が発達し小品の鑑賞が広まり、書法も初唐に虞世南(ぐせいなん)、欧陽詢(おうようじゅん)、褚遂良(ちょすいりょう)により古典的完成をみた流れが、顔真卿に至って均整より意志的表現が目だってくる。文化の担い手が貴族から士大夫(したいふ)、さらに富裕な庶民に広がるにつれ、その性格も変質を示した。

　他方唐代は東西文化交流の最盛期にあたり、侍衛の質子や使節・蕃将をはじめ来華外人もおびただしく、両京や主要都市に雲集し、仕官して顕著な事績を残した者も少なくない。凹凸画で名高い尉遅(うっち)氏父子や、インド暦法の瞿曇悉達(くどんしった)、密教を伝えた善無畏(ぜんむい)、不空三蔵はその代表であり、日本の阿倍仲麻呂(あべのなかまろ)（朝衡）も高官に上り、王維、李白ら詩人と交わり、歴史に名を残している。

　唐初にササン朝ペルシアから王子が亡命してきたほか、中央アジアを経て祆(けん)教（ゾロアスター教）、波斯(はし)教（マニ教）、景教（ネストリウス派キリスト教）の西方3宗教が伝えられ、長安はじめ、若干の都市に夷(い)寺が建設され、マニ教、景教の教典が漢訳された。これら外教は在留外人の庇護下に栄えたが、9世紀の会昌の廃仏で大弾圧を被り、表面から姿を消した。イスラム圏との交渉が南海貿易を通じ深まると、広州などに蕃坊とよばれるイスラム商人居住区ができた。そのほか音楽、舞踏、雑戯、飲食など生活に密着した諸文化に外来要素が豊富に取り込まれ、エキゾチシズムの盛行が著しい。

［池田　温］

『布目潮渢・栗原益男著『中国の歴史 4　隋唐帝国』（1974・講談社）』▽『日比野丈夫編『図説中国の歴史 4　華麗なる隋唐帝国』（1977・講談社）』▽『D. Twitchett ed.The Cambridge History of China vol. 3, Sui and T'ang. Part 1 (1979, Cambridge Univ. Press.)』