The overproduction depression that began in 1929. It was not just an industrial depression, but also included an agricultural depression, a financial depression, a currency depression that touched the very foundations of capitalism, and a standard currency depression. Moreover, it involved countries around the world (except the Soviet Union, which was a socialist country) and continued until 1933. Due to its wide-ranging and long-term nature, it is called the "Great Depression" among the many other depressions. The collapse of the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street on Thursday, October 24, 1929, known as "Black Thursday," was the catalyst for the Great Depression. Over the next two months, stock prices plummeted by an average of 42%. This was the result of America not being a battlefield during World War I, and instead speculating on stock prices in the name of "eternal prosperity" by using the excessive profits it made from the war economy as loan capital, inflating stock prices, and causing a collapse as a result of overproduction within the American economy. [Kaido Katsutoshi] Background to the Great DepressionThe United States, a country that gained profits from the First World War, quickly emerged as the world's leading capitalist nation after the postwar depression of 1920. It created a gap in production and capital power as an imperialist nation compared to the Western European countries that had been the battlefields, and entered an upward phase in 1922. This was mainly supported by the export of excess capital from the American war profits to Western Europe and Latin America, and investment in domestic growth industries such as durable consumer goods (automobiles, household electrical appliances, etc.) and construction, and cheap purchase credit (= consumer credit) also played a role. Furthermore, automobiles and construction, which have many parts industries with a wide range of related industries, brought about a boom in the United States in the 1920s. However, on the other hand, structural unemployment with a consistent unemployment rate of over 5% also existed in the 1920s, and there were also depressed industries such as agriculture, cotton spinning, leather, coal, and shipbuilding, so the boom was a combination of growth and stagnation. On the other hand, the United States became the world's leading agricultural nation after World War I, but as European agriculture recovered, a global surplus of production became apparent, and world agriculture experienced a chronic recession throughout the 1920s. In the world economy, the gap between the United States and the Western European countries (and Japan, which suffered frequent depressions) which showed only a slow recovery from the damage of the war widened. As the United States changed from a debtor country to the largest creditor country, Germany from a capital exporter to an importer, France from a long-term capital exporter to a short-term one, and the United Kingdom from a capital exporter that borrowed short-term and lent long-term, an international circulation naturally formed. The export (outflow) of excess private dollar funds from the United States as a creditor country flowed mainly to Western Europe, especially Germany, and was useful for the reconstruction capital, and the dollar exchange obtained enabled Germany to pay reparations, and the United Kingdom and France, who received it, repaid their war debts to the United States, creating a reflux circulation that maintained the economic boom of the 1920s. The other chain was that American private capital invested in Latin America and Canada was absorbed by the United Kingdom and used to pay off its trade deficit with the United States. Thus were created the economic boom of the 1920s and the restored gold standard, which in turn created the conditions for the Great Depression that began in 1929 and the chronic depression of the 1930s. [Kaido Katsutoshi] The Course of the Great DepressionThe excess capital that supported America's economic boom in the 1920s turned into idle excess capital used for stock and land speculation (peaking in Florida) as the economy progressed, reaching its peak at the end of the 1920s. However, unprecedented levels of excessive credit and speculation had accumulated, leading to excesses in automobiles, construction, and other durable goods. Thus, the unprecedented collapse of stock prices triggered the start of a serious Great Depression. The decline in construction, steel and automobiles, which are determining factors of the economy, was particularly severe, with a sharp increase in inventory backlogs, reduced production, a succession of corporate bankruptcies, and rising unemployment, and the cumulative and mutual impact of these downward factors paralyzing economic activity. In this case, the decline in production was extremely large in automobiles and steel, which were highly monopolized, but the fall in prices was small, demonstrating the downward rigidity typical of monopolies. However, in competitive non-monopolized sectors such as agriculture and leather, there was a severe collapse in prices. In all sectors, the decline in effective demand was strong overall, and was unprecedentedly long-lasting and severe. The contraction in construction activity was even more severe because the useful life of goods was longer, and continued into the early 1930s, becoming a major factor in the prolongation of the Great Depression. As a result, capital goods production was pulled back to the levels of the beginning of the 20th century, and according to Varga's estimates, the decline in industrial production from its pre-depression peak to its depression peak was as great as 56% in the United States, 32% in the United Kingdom, 52% in Germany, and 36% in France. The number of enterprises plummeted from 209,000 in 1929 to 139,000 in 1932, and the number of unemployed people continued to increase, from over 4 million in 1930 to 12.5 million in 1932, and 16 million in 1933, with the unemployment rate approaching 30%. Thus, through the international connections mentioned above, the Great Depression not only had a chain reaction from the United States to Germany, Britain, France and other countries, becoming a global depression that engulfed the entire world, but it was also accompanied by a serious and chronic agricultural depression that caused even more severe price falls, led to the disintegration of the peasantry and loss of land, and affected the entire production sector, resulting in a systemic shock. But that was not all. The depression continued for a long time, with the cumulative and mutual repercussions of downward factors continuing until mid-1932, but it led to a credit panic that had already begun at the end of 1930, and was serious enough to include the collapse of the Bank of the United States in New York. This financial panic forced Austria's largest bank, the Credit Anstalt, into bankruptcy in May 1931, and then spread to Germany and the United Kingdom, eventually leading to the collapse of the standard currency, which shook the foundations of capitalism, with the United Kingdom leaving the gold standard in September 1931 and the United States in March 1933. This comprehensive depression finally bottomed out in the summer of 1933, and transitioned into a depression. In the end, the Great Depression was a long period of stagnation from 1929 to 1933, and did not show any signs of recovery. As can be seen from the chronic recession that followed, it indicated an unprecedented loss of capitalism's ability to recover automatically, and was the antithesis of socialism, which showed steady growth. To overcome this, the Keynesian policy was proposed, which included the creation of effective demand by the state, full employment, and a managed currency system to replace the suspension of the gold standard. The United States adopted the New Deal policy, which partially adopted this Keynesian policy, but the global trend, triggered by the establishment of the Sterling System of Preferences in the UK, gave rise to the formation of world trade blocs, and in response, the rise of fascism and state monopoly capitalism, creating a trend toward preparations for World War II. [Kaido Katsutoshi] "Studies on the Great Depression" edited by Yoshiro Tamanoi (1964, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "The Great Depression in America" by Masaru Yoshitomi (1965, Nippon Hyoronsha) ▽ "Iwanami Lectures on World History 27: The Great Depression" (1971, Iwanami Shoten) [References] | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
1929年に始まる過剰生産恐慌。単に工業恐慌のみならず、農業恐慌、金融恐慌、資本主義の根幹に触れる通貨恐慌、本位貨恐慌に及び、しかも世界各国(社会主義国であったソ連を除く)を巻き込み、1933年にまで至る広範囲、長期という特徴をもつゆえに、数ある恐慌のうちとくに「大恐慌」とよばれている。 1929年10月24日(木曜)のウォール街のニューヨーク株式市場における瓦落(がら)は「暗黒の木曜日」といわれ、この大恐慌爆発の契機となった。以後2か月の間に株式は平均42%の急落を告げた。これは、アメリカが第一次世界大戦中に戦場となることなく、戦争経済から得た過度の利潤を貸付資本として「永遠の繁栄」のもとに投機的に株式投下し、株価を水膨れさせた結果の破綻(はたん)であり、そのアメリカ経済の内部に過剰生産が進行していたことによる。 [海道勝稔] 大恐慌発生の背景第一次世界大戦における戦争利得国アメリカは、1920年の戦後恐慌を経て、いち早く世界の中心的資本主義国に台頭し、戦場だった西欧諸国に対して帝国主義国としての生産力と資本力の格差をつけ、1922年には上昇局面に入る。それを支えたのはおもに、アメリカの戦時利得による過剰な資本の西欧・中南米への輸出と、国内成長産業である耐久消費財(自動車、家庭電気器具など)および建築への投資であり、低廉な購入信用(=消費者信用)もこれに役だった。さらに自動車、建築などは裾(すそ)の広い多数の部品産業と関連産業をもっており、1920年代のアメリカ国内に好況をもたらした。しかし反面、同じ1920年代には一貫して5%以上の失業率をもつ構造的失業も確かに存在し、また農業、綿紡績、皮革、石炭、造船など不況産業も抱え、成長と停滞が併存する形での好況であった。他方、アメリカは第一次世界大戦後は世界一の農業国になったが、ヨーロッパ農業の回復とともに世界的に生産過剰が表面化し、1920年代を通じ世界農業は慢性的不況を呈していた。 また世界経済においては、戦争の痛手から遅々たる回復しか示さない西欧諸国(および恐慌頻発の日本)と、アメリカとの格差は広がり、アメリカの債務国から最大の債権国へ、ドイツの資本輸出国から輸入国へ、フランスの長期資本輸出国から短期中心のそれへ、イギリスの短期借り長期貸しの資本輸出国への跛行(はこう)的変化のもとに、おのずから一つの国際的循環が形成された。アメリカの債権国としての過剰な民間ドル資金の対外輸出(流出)は、主として西欧、とくにドイツに流れ、その復興資本に役だち、その取得されたドル為替(かわせ)がドイツの賠償の支払いを可能にし、それを得たイギリス、フランスは、アメリカに戦時債務の返却をするという還流循環であり、それによって1920年代の好景気が維持された。いま一つは、中南米、カナダに投下されたアメリカ民間資本がイギリスに吸い上げられ、イギリスの対米貿易赤字支払いにあてられる連鎖となった。こうして1920年代の景気上昇と再建金本位制(金為替本位制)がつくられた。それらは、ことごとに、1929年に始まる大恐慌および1930年代の慢性不況の基礎条件をつくった。 [海道勝稔] 大恐慌の経過1920年代のアメリカのこの景気上昇を支えた過剰資本は、景気の進行とともに遊休過剰資本の株式投機、土地投機(フロリダが最盛)となり、1920年代末にはその頂点となったが、すでに未曽有(みぞう)の過度信用と過度投機が累積し、自動車、建築、その他耐久財に過剰がやってきていた。 かくて先の未曽有の株式瓦落を契機に深刻な大恐慌が始まった。とくに景気の規定的要因である建築、鉄鋼、自動車の減退は著しく、滞貨の激増、生産の縮小、企業倒産の続出、失業者の増大、それら下降要因の累積的相互波及により経済活動の麻痺(まひ)を引き起こした。この場合、生産の低下は、独占の高い自動車、鉄鋼できわめて大きいが、価格低下は小さく、独占特有の下方硬直性を示した。しかし、農業や皮革のように競争的非独占部門では激しい価格崩落が起こった。全部門で総じて強い有効需要の減退となって未曽有の長期深刻なものとなった。また、建築活動の縮小がはるかに厳しい事態となったのは、耐用期間が長期化するからで、1930年代前半まで続き、この大恐慌が長期化する大きな要因をつくった。 この結果、生産財生産は20世紀初頭の水準まで引き戻され、バルガの推定によると、恐慌前の最高点から恐慌中の最低点への工業生産低下率は、アメリカ56%、イギリス32%、ドイツ52%、フランス36%という大幅なものであった。企業数は1929年の20万9000から1932年の13万9000に激減し、失業者は1930年400万人余、1932年1250万人、1933年1600万人と拡大の一途をたどり、失業率も30%の水準に迫ったのである。 このように大恐慌は、先の国際的連関を通じ、アメリカからドイツ、イギリス‐フランスなどと連鎖反応して全世界を巻き込む世界恐慌となったのみならず、さらに激しい価格下落を起こした深刻な慢性的農業恐慌を伴っており、農民層の分解と土地喪失を起こし、全生産部門を襲った全機構震撼(しんかん)となった。 それだけではない。この恐慌は長期化し、1932年なかばまで下降要因の累積的相互波及が続くが、すでに1930年末から始まった信用恐慌へつながり、ニューヨークのバンク・オブ・USの倒産まで含む重大なものとなった。この金融恐慌はオーストリア最大の銀行クレジット・アンシュタルトを1931年5月に破産に追い込み、かくてドイツ、イギリスへと波及して、ついに1931年9月にはイギリス、1933年3月にはアメリカが金本位制を離脱するという資本主義の根幹を揺るがす本位貨崩壊にまで及んだ。この包括的な大恐慌は、ようやく1933年夏に底をみせ、不況に移行したのであった。 結局、大恐慌は1929年から1933年まで長期停滞を示し、好況への回復をみせず、その後の慢性的不況にみられるように、これまでに前例のない資本主義の自動回復力喪失を示し、順調な成長力を示す社会主義とは対蹠(たいしょ)的となった。この克服のために提唱されたのが、国家による有効需要創出、完全雇用、金本位制停止にかわる管理通貨制度、というケインズ政策である。アメリカは、このケインズ政策を一部取り入れたニューディール政策をとったが、世界の大勢は、イギリスのスターリング特恵制度成立を機に、世界貿易のブロック化と、それに対抗するファシズム化・国家独占資本主義化を生み出し、第二次世界大戦を準備する傾向をつくりだした。 [海道勝稔] 『玉野井芳郎編著『大恐慌の研究』(1964・東京大学出版会)』▽『吉富勝著『アメリカの大恐慌』(1965・日本評論社)』▽『『岩波講座 世界歴史27 世界恐慌期』(1971・岩波書店)』 [参照項目] | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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