Alternation of generations

Japanese: 世代交代 - せだいこうたい(英語表記)alternation of generations
Alternation of generations

This phenomenon refers to the periodic or irregular repetition of generations in a single biological species with different reproductive methods. It is also called alternation of generations. In 1819, the German biologist Chamisso came up with this concept while studying the reproduction of salps, a type of protochordate, and noticed that solitary individuals and chain salps (linked individuals) connected in a chain were produced alternately. In this way, alternation of generations refers to the alternation of sexual generations that multiply through sexual reproduction and asexual generations that multiply through asexual reproduction, while alternation of haploid (n) and diphasic (2n) generations in the nucleus of cells is called alternation of nuclear phase.

[Takeo Machida]

Animal Generation Change

The types of alternation of generations are diverse in accordance with the various differentiations in reproductive patterns, but can be broadly classified into one-generation alternation, in which gamete reproduction and agamete reproduction are repeated, and two-generation alternation, in which the gamete generation is replaced by a secondary asexual generation. The former is further divided into homophasic alternation, in which the karyophase is either haploid or diploid throughout both generations, and heterophasic alternation, in which the karyophase differs from generation to generation.

An example of homophasic alternation of generations is the protozoan Stephanosphaera. This animal is a haploid organism that reproduces without gametes throughout its entire alternation of generations, but when gametes are produced and conjugated under certain conditions, the zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to become haploid. In heterophasic alternation of generations, a diplomorphic asexual generation is replaced by a haploid sexual generation. An example of this is seen in the protozoan foraminifera.

Alternation of two generations can be further divided into several patterns. As in the example of salps mentioned above, the most typical alternation of generations, in which gamete reproduction and asexual reproduction are repeated alternately, is called true alternation of generations (metagenesis). In moon jellyfish, fertilized eggs produced by sexual reproduction develop into planulae. These eventually settle and become strobila, which then undergo asexual lateral division to produce ephyrae, which then become jellyfish. In insects such as aphids and grape worms, rotifers, and frog lung nematodes, hermaphrodite and parthenogenetic reproduction alternate, and this is called heterogony. Alternation of hermaphrodite and larval reproduction is called alloiogenesis, and is seen in animals that live parasitic lives, such as liver flukes and gall flies.

[Takeo Machida]

Plant generation change

There is no clear alternation of generations in seed plants, but in almost all lower plants below ferns, there is a clear alternation of generations.

In ferns, the typical plant body forms spores (asexual reproduction), and when the spores germinate and grow, they form a prothallus. The prothallus is small, less than 1 cm in diameter, and the reproductive organs of archegonia and antheridia are formed on it, and sexual reproduction takes place. The embryo produced as a result of sexual reproduction grows into the typical fern. The plant body that reproduces asexually is called the sporophyte (asexual generation), and the prothallus is called the gametophyte (sexual generation). In mosses, the typical plant body is the gametophyte, on which the male and female reproductive organs are formed. The sporophyte is formed in a semi-parasitic state on the gametophyte's body, and it does not normally develop very much.

Alternation of generations in plants can be divided into the following four types, based on the degree of development of the sexual and asexual generations and the state of the nuclear phase in each generation. (1) Acanthophyllum type: The gametophyte is large, and male and female gametes are produced and fused to it. The zygote (2n phase) later undergoes meiosis to produce numerous zoospores. Gametophytes develop from these zoospores. The asexual generation is represented by only unicellular zygotes. This type is seen in the green alga Acanthophyllum. (2) Polypodium type: The gametophyte is more developed than the sporophyte, and is seen in mosses and the brown alga Polypodium polypodium. (3) Polypodium type: The sporophyte and gametophyte are morphologically identical, and only the nuclear phase and reproductive organs differ. Representative examples are seen in the brown alga Polypodium polypodium, the green algae Aonori and Ulva, and the red algae Agarwood. (4) Laminaria type: The sporophyte is well developed, but the gametophyte is underdeveloped and small, making it difficult to distinguish with the naked eye. This type is represented by the brown algae Laminaria, and is also found in ferns. Seed plants are also considered to be an extreme form of the Laminaria type, and the gametophyte is thought to be represented by the pollen tube and embryo sac.

[Hiroshi Inoue]

[References] | Bryophytes | Ferns | Algae
Generational change of moon jellyfish
© Tadaaki Ohkata ">

Generational change of moon jellyfish


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一つの生物種が生殖法の異なる世代を周期的ないし不規則的に繰り返す現象をいう。世代交番ともよぶ。ドイツの生物学者シャミッソーが1819年に原索動物のサルパの生殖を研究するうち、単独生活する個体と鎖状につながったチェーンサルパ(連鎖個体)とが交互に生ずることからこの概念を考えた。このように有性生殖によって増殖する有性世代と、無性生殖によって増える無性世代とが交互に繰り返す場合を世代交代というのに対し、細胞内の核相が単相(n)世代と複相(2n)世代を交互に繰り返す場合を核相交代とよんでいる。

[町田武生]

動物の世代交代

生殖様式にさまざまの分化がみられるのに対応して、世代交代の形式も多様であるが、大別すると、配偶子生殖と無配偶子生殖が繰り返す一次世代交代と、配偶子生殖の世代が二次的な無性世代と交代する二次世代交代とがある。前者はさらに、核相が両世代を通じて単相か複相かのいずれか一方だけの同相世代交代と、世代ごとに核相の異なる異相世代交代とに分けられる。

 同相世代交代の例としては原生動物のステファノスファエラStephanosphaeraがあげられる。この動物は世代交代の全過程が単相世代の生物で、無配偶子で増殖を続けるが、ある条件下で配偶子を生じ接合すると、接合子はただちに減数分裂して単相となる。異相世代交代では複相の無性世代が単相の有性世代と交代する。原生動物の有孔虫にこの例がみられる。

 二次世代交代もさらにいくつかの様式に分けられる。すでに述べたサルパの例のように、配偶子生殖と無性生殖とが交互に繰り返されるもっとも典型的な世代交代は、真正世代交代(メタゲネシスmetagenesis)とよばれる。ミズクラゲでは、有性生殖により生じた受精卵が発生し、プラヌラ幼生となる。これはやがて定着生活をし、ストロビラとなり、無性的に横分裂してエフィラ幼生を生じ、これがクラゲになる。アブラムシ、ブドウノコブムシなどの昆虫類、ワムシ類、蛙肺(かえるはい)線虫などでは、両性生殖と単為生殖とが交代して現れ、周期性単性生殖(ヘテロゴニーheterogony)といわれる。両性生殖と幼生生殖を交代するのは混合生殖(アロイオゲネシスalloiogenesis)とよばれ、肝蛭(かんてつ)やタマバエなど寄生生活をする動物にみられる。

[町田武生]

植物の世代交代

種子植物には明らかな形としての世代交代はみられないが、シダ植物以下の下等植物ではほとんどすべてについて明瞭(めいりょう)な世代交代がみられる。

 シダ植物では、普通にみる植物体は胞子形成を行い(無性生殖)、胞子が発芽して成長すると前葉体をつくる。前葉体は直径1センチメートル以下の小形であるが、この上に造卵器、造精器の生殖器官をつくり、有性生殖が行われる。有性生殖の結果つくられる胚(はい)が成長して、普通にみられるシダ植物となる。無性生殖をする植物体を胞子体(無性世代)とよび、前葉体を配偶体(有性世代)とよんでいる。コケ植物では普通にみられる植物体が配偶体であり、この上に雌雄の生殖器官がつくられる。胞子体は配偶体の体の上に半寄生状態でつくられ、普通にはあまり発達しない。

 有性世代、無性世代の体制の発達程度およびおのおのの世代における核相の状態などから、植物にみられる世代交代は次の四型に分けられる。(1)ヒトエグサ型 配偶体は大きく、これに雌雄の配偶子ができて接合する。接合子(2n相)はのちに減数分裂を行い、多数の遊走子をつくる。この遊走子から配偶体が成長する。無性世代は単細胞の接合子だけで代表される。緑藻類のヒトエグサにみられる型。(2)ムチモ型 配偶体が胞子体よりも発達するもので、コケ植物や褐藻類のムチモなどにみられる。(3)アミジグサ型 胞子体と配偶体が形態的にまったく同じで、おのおのの核相と生殖器官のみが異なる。褐藻類のアミジグサ、緑藻類のアオノリ、アオサ、紅藻類のテングサなどに代表的な例がみられる。(4)コンブ型 胞子体がよく発達するが、配偶体は発達せず小形で肉眼的に識別がむずかしい。褐藻類のコンブに代表される型で、シダ植物の場合もこの型である。種子植物もコンブ型の極端な型と考えられ、配偶体は花粉管および胚嚢(はいのう)で代表されると考えられている。

[井上 浩]

[参照項目] | コケ植物 | シダ植物 | 藻類
ミズクラゲの世代交代
©大片忠明">

ミズクラゲの世代交代


出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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