Reproduction

Japanese: 生殖 - せいしょく
Reproduction

The process by which organisms produce new individuals to maintain their species is called reproduction, and is divided into asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction that occurs in a single organism without forming mating elements such as gametes. (1) Asexual reproduction of unicellular organisms Division or budding occurs. Amoebae (protozoa) extend their bodies by extending pseudopodia, then split into two cells as if they are torn apart. In this case, the nucleus divides before the cell divides. In bacteria and yeast, reproduction by division or budding is the general method of reproduction. (2) Asexual reproduction of multicellular organisms In freshwater hydra (cnidaria), a single bud forms on the tubular body wall, which eventually becomes a small hydra and leaves the mother body. Polychaetes and sponges also reproduce by budding and division. Strawberries produce buds and roots at the tips of their branches that crawl along the ground, and these buds eventually live independently. The method of reproduction by asexual buds in Japanese yam and liverwort is well known.

[Takasugi Akira]

Sexual reproduction

Reproduction by the union (conjugation) of gametes or other conjugating elements, which may occur in a single organism or between two individuals.

(1) Sexual reproduction in plants The organism that produces gametes is called a gametophyte, and the organism that produces spores is called a sporophyte (see Alternation of Generations below). In angiosperms, the pollen derived from a pollen mother cell is a male gametophyte and contains one nucleus. When this fertilizes the stigma of the pistil, the pollen tube extends and nuclear division takes place within it, producing one pollen tube nucleus and two sperm nuclei. One of these sperm nuclei acts as a gamete and fuses (fertilizes) with an egg cell, which is a gamete, in the ovule of the ovary. Ginkgo, a gymnosperm, is dioecious, and sperm that move with cilia can be seen in the ovule of the female plant. These sperm are formed within the pollen tube that extends after the pollen of the male plant attaches to the pistil. Similar sperm can also be seen in cycads. Gametes are formed through meiosis, so the nuclear phase is haploid (the number of chromosomes is half, n). The union of two gametes produces a diploid zygote (with a total of 2n chromosomes), from which a new plant develops. In addition, various conjugation elements are found in algae.

(2) Sexual Reproduction in Animals The male gametes (sperm) of animals have a wide variety of shapes, due to the fact that they can break through the egg membrane and that the environment and medium they are in on the way to the egg are diverse, including air, fresh water, and seawater. In mammals, the semen injected during mating is drawn into the female reproductive organs by contraction, and the sperm in the semen show rheotaxis against the flow in the oviduct caused by the cilia in the wall, and reach the egg by flagellar movement. Sperm that fertilize in water reach the egg by chemotaxis. For example, sea urchin eggs release a substance called ginogamon that enhances sperm motility and promotes sperm assembly. In sea urchin and lugworm eggs, the acidic glycoprotein in the outer jelly layer functions to cause sperm to stick to it. This glycoprotein destroys the acrosomal membrane of the sperm, and the egg membrane-dissolving substance contained in the sperm acrosome makes a hole in the egg membrane, through which the sperm nucleus penetrates the egg. In animals where gamete conjugation occurs through air or water, the number of eggs and sperm released is extremely large to increase the frequency of conjugation. Many animals actively attract members of the opposite sex prior to gamete conjugation. Male moths detect the odor of pheromones released by females and approach them. Their calls and body colors also help males and females approach each other.

For information on sexual reproduction in fungi, please see the entries for "Fungi" and "Sexual Differentiation."

[Takasugi Akira]

Parthenogenesis

Reproduction in which sexually reproducing organisms produce new individuals using only a single gamete. In contrast, bisexual reproduction is the combination of gametes of both sexes. Parthenogenesis often occurs from female gametes (eggs). Queen honeybees mate on their nuptial flight, receive enough sperm to last them a lifetime, store them in their spermatheca, and then return to the hive to focus on laying eggs. Females are born from fertilized eggs, and males are born from unfertilized eggs. Female bees other than the queen become worker bees. The mechanism by which the queen bee lays fertilized and unfertilized eggs is not yet fully understood.

In aphids, females are produced from eggs through parthenogenesis in the summer, but in autumn, due to the cold and lack of food, females and males appear and sexual reproduction takes place. On the other hand, these eggs endure the cold and in the spring, parthenogenesis occurs to produce females.

There have been no reports of mammals growing to adulthood through parthenogenesis, but there have been cases in which eggs from atretic follicles in the ovaries of guinea pigs have divided and developed into the early stages of the neural tube. Some human testicular tumors have embryo-like structures, which are said to be the result of sperm parthenogenesis. Note that parthenogenesis of eggs is called virgin reproduction, and parthenogenesis of sperm is called virgin reproduction.

Parthenogenesis can also be induced artificially. Chemical or physical stimuli such as butyric acid, tannins, heat, or puncture can cause artificial virgin reproduction (artificial parthenogenesis). Treatment of flowers with plant hormones such as auxins and gibberellins often results in parthenogenetic fruit set, producing seedless fruits.

[Takasugi Akira]

Generational change

This refers to the case where asexual and sexual generations are alternately repeated. In ferns (vascular plants), many haploid spores with halved chromosomes caused by meiosis scatter, germinate, and grow (asexual generation). One or two months after germination, these spores become small, heart-shaped prothallus (gametophyte), and archegonia and antheridium are formed on the underside, producing eggs and sperm, respectively. The spores, prothallus, and gametes (eggs and sperm) are all haploid. When eggs and sperm are fertilized in the archegonia, they become diploid zygotes, from which the plant body of the fern (sporophyte) is born. In mosses, there are female and male plants (gametophytes) that are produced by germination of spores. They form archegonia and antheridium, respectively, and the subsequent alternation of generations is the same as in ferns, but the sporophyte is smaller. The alternation of generations in these plants is also an alternation of haploid and diploid phases, which is called karyophase. Note that even if there is no alternation of generations, karyophase occurs with sexual reproduction.

[Takasugi Akira]

Conjugation in single-celled organisms

Unicellular organisms that reproduce asexually by division or budding can also conjugate. For example, in the protozoan Paramecium caudatum, which has a macronucleus and a micronucleus, two individuals fuse at the peristome, and the macronucleus disintegrates and disappears. The micronucleus divides twice to become four, but three of these disappear. When the remaining nucleus divides to become two nuclei (a male and a female nucleus), the two individuals exchange the male nucleus and undergo nuclear fusion with the female nucleus, which then separates at the junction, and the fused nucleus divides to form the macronucleus and the micronucleus. This type of conjugation between unicellular organisms is also seen in fungi and plants (algae).

[Takasugi Akira]

"Reproduction" by Carl, translated by Takasugi Sen and Takeshige Tokuei (Hakusuisha, Que sais-je paperback)""Living Things and Sex" by Egami Nobuo (1974, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)

[References] | Fungi | Life cycle | Sexual differentiation | Algae
Reproduction methods of major plants and animals
© Satoshi Shimazoe

Reproduction methods of major plants and animals


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

生物が種を維持するために行う個体新生の営みを生殖といい、無性生殖と有性生殖とに区別される。

無性生殖

配偶子などの接合要素を形成することなく、単独の生物体で行われる生殖をいう。(1)単細胞生物の無性生殖 分裂または出芽を行う。アメーバ(原生動物)は仮足を出して体を伸長し、引きちぎられるように二つの細胞に分裂する。この際、細胞が分裂する前に核が分裂する。バクテリアや酵母では、分裂や出芽による生殖が一般的な増殖法である。(2)多細胞生物の無性生殖 淡水産のヒドラ(刺胞動物)では、管状の体壁に一つの芽ができて、これがやがて小さなヒドラになって母体から離れる。多毛類や海綿類も出芽と分裂によって増殖する。イチゴは、地面をはう枝の先に芽と根を生じ、やがてこの芽が独立して生活する。ヤマノイモやゼニゴケの無性芽による増殖法はよく知られている。

[高杉 暹]

有性生殖

配偶子その他の接合要素を生じて合体(接合)する生殖をいう。単独の生物体が行う場合と、2個体が関係する場合とがある。

(1)植物の有性生殖 配偶子をつくる母体を配偶体といい、胞子をつくる母体を胞子体という(後述の世代交代参照)。被子植物では、花粉母細胞由来の花粉は雄性配偶体であって一つの核を含む。これが雌しべの柱頭に受粉すると、花粉管が伸びてその中で核分裂が行われて一つの花粉管核と二つの精核ができる。そのうちの一つの精核が配偶子として働いて、子房の胚珠(はいしゅ)内の配偶子である卵細胞と接合(受精)する。裸子植物のイチョウは雌雄異株で、雌株の胚珠の中に繊毛で動く精子がみられる。この精子は雄株の花粉が雌しべについてから伸びた花粉管内に形成されたものである。同様の精子はソテツでもみられる。配偶子は減数分裂を経て形成されるので核相は単相(染色体数が半数n)である。二つの配偶子の接合によって複相(染色体数が全数2n)の接合子となり、接合子から新植物体が成長する。このほか、藻類ではいろいろの接合要素がみられる。

(2)動物の有性生殖 動物の雄性配偶子(精子)の形態は種々さまざまであるが、これは卵の膜を突破するためと、卵に到達するまでの環境や媒体が空気、淡水、海水など多様なためである。哺乳(ほにゅう)類では、交尾して注入された精液が雌の生殖器官の収縮で内部に引き入れられ、輸卵管壁の繊毛でおこる管内流に対して精液中の精子は走流性を示して鞭毛(べんもう)運動を行って卵に到達する。水中で受精する精子は走化性によって卵に到達する。たとえば、ウニの卵からはギノガモンという精子の運動を高める物質が放出されて精子との会合を促進する。ウニやゴカイの卵では、外層のゼリー層の酸性糖タンパク質に精子を膠着(こうちゃく)させる働きがある。この糖タンパク質が精子の先体膜を破壊し、精子の先体に含まれる卵膜溶解物質が卵膜に穴をあけ、そこから精核が卵に侵入する。空気や水を媒体として配偶子の接合がおこる動物では、放出する卵や精子の数は会合の頻度を高めるためにきわめて多い。配偶子の接合に先だって異性の個体を積極的に引き付ける動物も多い。雄のガは雌から放出されるフェロモンのにおいを感知して、雌に接近する。鳴き声や体色なども、雌雄の接近に役だっている。

 なお、菌類の有性生殖については、「菌類」および「性の分化」の項を参照されたい。

[高杉 暹]

単為生殖

有性生殖を行う生物が、単独の配偶子だけで新個体を発生させる生殖。これに対し、両性の配偶子の合体によるものを両性生殖という。単為生殖は、雌性配偶子(卵)による場合が多い。ミツバチの女王バチは結婚飛行で交尾し、生涯使うだけの精子を受け取って精嚢(せいのう)に蓄え、巣に戻って産卵に専念する。受精卵からは雌が生まれ、未受精卵からは雄が生まれる。女王バチ以外の雌バチは働きバチになる。女王バチから受精卵と未受精卵が産み分けられる機構はまだよくわかっていない。

 アブラムシでは、夏季には単為生殖によって卵から雌ができるが、秋になると寒冷と餌(えさ)の欠乏によって雌と雄が現れて有性生殖を行う。しかし一方では、この卵は寒さに耐え、春になると単為生殖を行って雌ができる。

 哺乳類では、単為生殖によって成体にまで成長したという報告はないが、テンジクネズミ(モルモット)の卵巣では、閉鎖濾胞(ろほう)の卵が分裂して神経管の初期段階にまで発生した例がある。ヒトの睾丸腫瘍(こうがんしゅよう)のなかには胚様構造がみられることがあるが、これは精子の単為生殖的結果といわれている。なお、卵の単為生殖を処女生殖、精子の単為生殖を童貞生殖という。

 単為生殖は人工的に引き起こすこともできる。酪酸、タンニン、熱、穿刺(せんし)などの化学的または物理的刺激で人工的な処女生殖(人為単為生殖)がおこる。オーキシンやジベレリンなどの植物ホルモンで花を処理すると、しばしば単為生殖的に結実して種なし果実ができる。

[高杉 暹]

世代交代

無性生殖の世代と有性生殖の世代とが交互に繰り返される場合をいう。シダ類(維管束植物)では、減数分裂によって染色体が半数になった単相の胞子多数が飛び散って発芽して増殖する(無性世代)。この胞子が発芽して1、2か月すると、ハート形の小さい前葉体(配偶体)になり、その裏面には造卵器と造精器が形成され、それぞれ卵と精子を生ずる。胞子から前葉体、さらに配偶子(卵と精子)まではすべて単相である。造卵器の中で卵と精子が受精すると、複相の受精卵となり、これからシダの植物体(胞子体)が生ずる。コケ植物には、胞子が発芽して生じた雌株と雄株とがある(配偶体)。それぞれ造卵器か造精器を形成し、その後の世代交代はシダ類と同じであるが、胞子体のほうが小さい。これらの植物の世代交代は同時に単相と複相の交代でもあり、これを核相交代という。なお、世代交代はしなくても、核相交代は有性生殖に伴っておこる。

[高杉 暹]

単細胞生物の接合

分裂または出芽によって無性的に増殖する単細胞生物も、接合することがある。たとえば、大核と小核をもつ原生動物であるゾウリムシは、2個体が囲口部で接合し、大核は崩壊して消失する。小核は2回分裂して4個になるが、そのうちの3個は消失する。残りの1核が分裂して2個の核(雄核と雌核)になると、2個体は雄核を交換して雌核と核癒合を行い、接合部位で離れ、癒合核は分裂して大核と小核ができる。このような単細胞体の接合は、菌類や植物(藻類)でもみられる。

[高杉 暹]

『カルル著、高杉暹・武重徳衛訳『生殖』(白水社・文庫クセジュ)』『江上信雄著『生きものと性』(1974・日本経済新聞社)』

[参照項目] | 菌類 | 生活環 | 性の分化 | 藻類
おもな動植物の生殖法
©島添 敏">

おもな動植物の生殖法


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