Forest - Shinrin

Japanese: 森林 - しんりん
Forest - Shinrin

A forest is a collective term for woodland and trees. Forest trees are trees that grow in a certain area; they are not independent, but are adjacent to each other and their crowns (the branches and leaves) are continuous. At the top of a forest is the crown layer of tall trees, called the tree layer, and below that is the sub-tall tree layer, shrub layer, herbaceous layer, and ground surface layer, forming a multi-layered structure. In addition to plants, forests are also home to many different types of animals and microorganisms, and these organisms are not only related to each other, but are also closely linked to the environment such as the soil and the atmosphere, forming an organic entity. For this reason, forests can be said to be the largest and most typical ecosystem on land.

Forests are roughly classified according to various criteria as follows: (1) According to origin and human intervention: natural forests and artificial forests. (2) According to forest appearance: tall forests and low forests. (3) According to forest management: tall forests (forests with tall trees and suitable for industrial timber harvesting), low forests (forests regenerated by sprouting for fuel, etc.), and medium forests (forests with a combination of tall and low forests). (4) According to the age composition of the trees: even-aged forests and uneven-aged forests. (5) According to the tree species composition: evergreen forests, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, broadleaf forests, simple forests (80 to 90% or more of the same tree species), and mixed forests (a mixture of two or more species). (6) According to the composition of the canopy layer: single-tiered or single-story forests (single canopy layer), multi-tiered or multi-layered forests (canopy layers clearly distinguishable into two or more layers), and continuous-story forests (canopy layers are complex and indistinguishable). (7) By the presence or absence of human use = unused forests (natural forests including virgin forests) and utilized forests (naturally regenerated forests and artificially planted forests).

[Tadaki Ryoya]

Forest Zones of the World

Considering the relationship between precipitation and temperature, forests can be said to be plant communities that are permitted to exist in the humidest areas on Earth's land surface. In areas where forests can grow, the vegetation zones that are classified using forests as landmarks are called forest zones. The world's forest types can be divided according to the classification (1953) of Kinji Imanishi and Tatsuo Kira (1919-2011) as follows:

(1) Tropical rainforests Evergreen broadleaf forests that grow in tropical areas with sufficient temperature and precipitation. They have a complex structure, a wide variety of tree species, and a huge current stock and productivity. They are also characterized by trees with unique morphologies such as buttress roots, supporting roots, and trunk-growing flowers, as well as a wide variety of epiphytic and parasitic plants and vines. Their main distribution areas are the Congo River basin in West Africa, the Amazon River basin in South America, and Southeast Asia and Oceania, including Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and the New Guinea lowlands.

(2) Subtropical rainforests: Evergreen broadleaf forests found in subtropical regions with rainfall all year round. Their structure is slightly simpler than that of tropical rainforests, and they have fewer large trees. Their main distribution areas are southern Brazil, northern Argentina, eastern Australia, and southeastern China, but their area is not very large.

(3) Rainforests are broadleaf forests found in tropical and subtropical regions with a rainy season and a dry season. These forests lose their leaves during the dry season and only grow leaves during the rainy season. In Southeast Asia, they are also called monsoon forests. Teak and other tree species are well known, and the forest structure is simpler than that of rainforests. They are found in areas from eastern India to the Indochina Peninsula, the western Philippines, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

(4) Evergreen broadleaf forests Evergreen broadleaf forests are unique to the warm temperate zone of East Asia. To cope with winter, the leaves are small and thick, with a cuticular membrane on their surface. As a result, they appear shiny in the sunlight, hence the name "evergreen broadleaf forest." The forest consists of chinquapin, oak, thunbergia, camphor, and other trees, and the forest is green all the way to the ground throughout the year, with high humidity. They are found mainly in the Himalayan mountain range, through southern China, Taiwan, and southwestern Japan.

(5) Sclerophyll forests are warm temperate evergreen broadleaf forests that are better suited to the dryness of summer than the coldness of winter. They are mainly found along the Mediterranean coast, where it rains in winter and is dry in summer, in the Cape region of South Africa, southwestern Australia, central and southern California, and central Chile. To enhance their drought resistance, the leaves are small and leathery, and the bark is thick. Olives and cork oaks are representative species of the Mediterranean region, while eucalyptus is typical of Australia.

(6) Warm-temperate deciduous forests: These forests are found in the warm-temperate climate, but are mainly composed of broad-leaved trees that lose their leaves in winter due to the cold and dryness. In addition to broad-leaved trees such as oaks, chestnuts, and hornbeams, conifers such as fir, hemlock, and pine are also representative of this forest zone. They are widely distributed in the semi-humid warm-temperate zone, such as East Asia and the Americas.

(7) Deciduous broadleaf forest: A deciduous broadleaf forest found in cool temperate regions, with trees such as beech and oak that lose their leaves in winter. Also called summer green forest. Widely distributed in Asia, Europe, North America, etc.

(8) Evergreen coniferous forests Forests of the fir and spruce genus that cover the subarctic zone. They are also called boreal coniferous forests or taiga. They are found in the northern part of North America and Eurasia, and surround the Arctic. There are no forests of this type in the Southern Hemisphere. The forest structure is simple, and it is not uncommon for them to consist of two layers: a tree layer and a moss layer.

(9) Deciduous coniferous forests: forests of larch species that appear in parts of the subarctic zone. In particular, larch forests in the extremely cold regions of eastern Siberia are well known, and although precipitation is low, they are known to grow using the water produced by the melting of the permafrost surface during the short summer months.

[Tadaki Ryoya]

Japan's forest zones

Japan has ample rainfall, is long from north to south, and has a complex topography, so there are many different kinds of forests. The Ryukyu, Amami, and Ogasawara Islands are located in the subtropics, where subtropical rainforests consist of oaks and banyan trees mixed with oaks and chinquapins, but this type of typical forest has almost disappeared due to World War II and postwar development. In the warm temperate zone from Kyushu north to the Kanto region, evergreen broad-leaved forests of chinquapins, oaks, Machilus thunbergii, camphor trees, and racemosum trees are typical, but because this region was an early home to Japanese culture, it has been heavily influenced by humans and has been subject to various developments, with the remaining forests turning into secondary forests of red pine and oak. The cool temperate zone from central Honshu to the Tohoku region and western Hokkaido is dominated by evergreen forests, typically beech forests. Beech forests are predominant on the Japan Sea side, but are less developed on the Pacific side, where conifers such as Abies salicina and Tsuga also appear. Tree species that appear in beech forests include Quercus crispula, elms, linden trees, and maples, and Quercus crispula often dominates in areas with low humidity. Evergreen broad-leaved forests are weak to cold, while cool-temperate deciduous forests are weak to heat, so in the inland areas from Kinki to the southern Tohoku region, warm-temperate deciduous forests such as Quercus serrata, hornbeams, chestnuts, Japanese beeches, and fir grow to fill the intermediate zone. Evergreen coniferous forests are representative of the subarctic and subalpine zones, with Abies sachalinensis and Picea jezoensis dominant in Hokkaido, and Abies mariesii, Abies mariesii, Picea toadflax, and Tsuga diversifolia dominant in Honshu. In Hokkaido, forests of mixed conifers and broad-leaved trees are widely distributed as a transition zone between the cool temperate and subarctic zones. The cold zone only exists vertically in Japan, and is called the alpine zone, where low forests of Japanese stone pine can be found.

[Tadaki Ryoya]

World Forest Resources

Historically and currently, the world's forests are the main resource for fuel, housing, furniture, paper, etc. According to the World Forest Resources Assessment (2010) by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the world's forest area in 2010 was 4,033 million hectares, accounting for 31% of the total land area. In terms of forest distribution by continent, Europe accounts for 25% of the world's forest area, followed by South America 21%, North and Central America 18%, Africa 17%, Asia 15%, and Oceania 5%. In terms of tree species distribution by climatic zone, coniferous forests are mainly found in the subarctic and temperate zones. Representative tree species include larch, spruce, and Japanese cedar in Siberia, Japan, hemlock and Japanese pine in North America, pine, fir, and spruce in Northern Europe, and Japanese cedar, cypress, and red pine in Japan. Broadleaf forests are widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions, and account for nearly 70% of forest communities worldwide. There are several thousand species of broadleaf trees, and the forest structure is a multi-layered structure of tall trees, medium-sized trees, and shrubs. Of these, the trees that are used as industrial resources are mainly tall and large-diameter trees. Lauan (common name), which Japan imports from Southeast Asia for plywood, is a tree species of the Dipterocarpaceae family that is representative of tropical rainforests, and is a tall and large-diameter tree that is found in only a few trees per hectare. In Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Cameroon in Africa, where deforestation is an international problem, there are trees such as rosewood and ebony, which are used for high-end Buddhist altars and furniture, and these trees are also tall tree species that make up tropical forests. The difference in distribution between coniferous and broadleaf forests is deeply related to the history of the development of both trees. Conifers flourished before broadleaf trees in the Cretaceous period, the age of the dinosaurs, and then retreated as broadleaf trees spread, distributing in areas such as the subarctic zone at high latitudes and the alpine zones of the temperate zone. In contrast, broadleaf forests are widely distributed from the temperate zone to the tropics, and form communities on a continental scale in the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and the Brazilian Amazon. These tropical rainforests absorb carbon dioxide, a global warming substance, and supply oxygen to the extent that they are called the "lungs" of the Earth. The loss of tropical rainforests deteriorates the life support system of humanity.

[Yamagishi Kiyotaka]

Global forest utilization

In terms of wood use, the world's forests can be divided into fuelwood and charcoal use and industrial use such as lumber, plywood, and pulp. According to the FAO's 2012 statistical database (FAOSTAT), the world's wood production in 2010 was 3.41 billion cubic meters, of which 1.87 billion cubic meters (55%) was for firewood and charcoal, and 1.54 billion cubic meters (45%) was for industrial use. Firewood and charcoal use has exceeded industrial use since the oil shocks of the 1970s (high oil prices), when developing countries faced with high oil prices and increased their reliance on wood energy. Regions where the rate of firewood and charcoal use exceeds 50% include Africa (89%), Asia (74%), and Latin America (58%). On the other hand, the regions with the highest rate of industrial use of wood are Europe and North America, with the rate in Europe reaching 77% and North America reaching 91%. As of 2010, 94% of wood used in Japan was for industrial use and 6% for firewood and charcoal, which is similar to the usage situation in North America.

[Yamagishi Kiyotaka]

Japan's forest resources

Japan's forest coverage is among the highest in the world. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)'s "The Global Forest Resources Assessment" (2012), Japan's land area is 36.45 million hectares (2005), of which 24.98 million hectares (2010), or 69%, is forested. Japan's forest coverage is exceptionally high, along with that of Finland in Northern Europe (73%), and ranks among the highest among developed countries. The United States, the top exporter of timber to Japan, has a forest coverage rate of 33%, and even Russia, which has vast forests in Siberia, has a forest coverage rate of only 49%. In particular, when comparing closed forests excluding sparse forests (tree crown coverage area/forest land area = 10% or more), Japan's forest coverage is ranked among the highest in the world, surpassing Finland. Japan also leads the world in the creation of artificial forests. While other countries around the world are at the stage of natural forest management, leaving forest creation to natural regeneration, Japan is at the stage of artificial forest management by planting trees. As of 2010, Japan had the highest rate of artificial forests (area of ​​artificial forests/area of ​​forest) at 41%, far ahead of the United States at 8% and Russia at 2%. Japan's artificial forest rate, which stands out from the rest of the world, was established through the expansion of afforestation (conversion of firewood and charcoal forests to Japanese cedar and cypress forests) that has been carried out all over the country since the 1950s.

[Yamagishi Kiyotaka]

Japan's forest utilization

In Japan, only 2% of forests are used for fuelwood and charcoal, while 98% are used for industrial purposes. According to the Forest and Forestry White Paper (2012 edition), as of 2010, 58% of industrial timber was used for sawmilling, 26% for pulp, and 16% for plywood. In North America and Europe, where the ratio of industrial use of forests is similar to that of Japan, the ratio of pulp use is relatively higher than that of sawmilling, showing a difference from Japan. This difference is not only due to differences in architectural styles (non-woody and woody), but is also deeply related to Japan's 2,000-year-old "wood culture." Huge wooden structures and groups of wooden buildings have been excavated from the Sannai-Maruyama ruins, a Jomon ruins excavated in Aomori Prefecture. In addition, the world's largest wooden building was constructed during the Nara period, as seen in Todaiji Temple. Furthermore, from the Muromachi period, castle towns were built in various regions using wooden buildings, and Japan's unique "wood culture" was formed and developed. This tradition and culture of wooden architecture has been passed down even today in the 21st century, and has increased the use of lumber for lumber. In terms of trees, Japan also has useful tree species for lumber, such as cedar and cypress. These wood species are suitable for housing in the high temperature and high temperature climate and soil characteristic of monsoon regions, and are resistant to preservatives and termites (termites, etc.). In addition to the forestry uses mentioned above, forests are used for recreational purposes such as prefectural forests and municipal forests, educational purposes such as nature observation and forest ecosystem studies, and physical therapy to restore the functions of the elderly and dementia patients. In particular, physical therapy use of forests is attracting attention as a method of forest use that responds to the aging society.

[Yamagishi Kiyotaka]

Japan's Forest Planning

Japan's forest planning is a system for managing forest resources across the entire country, including privately owned forests, and is a system that is unique internationally. This forest planning system was legalized in 1951 (Showa 26) with the revision of the Forest Law. The background to its inception is deeply connected to the land reform. The land reform carried out in the late 1940s had the character of land reform, but the release of land was limited to cultivated land, and forests were excluded from the reform. As a compensation for this, the government allowed the purchase of uncultivated land and the release of pastureland in national forests, etc. In 1951, the final year of the land reform, the government revised the Forest Law, which legally specified the end of these projects, while also establishing the forest planning system with the aim of restoring 1.5 million hectares of war-ravaged forest land, which was an urgent issue at the time, and securing timber for reconstruction. Therefore, the forest planning system is a planning system that covers all forests in the country, and national plans take precedence over local plans. First, the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries formulates a national forest plan (logging plan, afforestation plan, forest road opening plan, and security facility development project plan) that includes implementation plans for 15-year periods and 5-year units, based on the "basic plan for forest resources," "long-term forecast for forest product supply and demand," and "status of development of protection forests." Based on this national forest plan, prefectural governors and forest management bureau directors formulate regional forest plans that include implementation plans for 10-year periods and 5-year units for private forests within their jurisdictions, and national forests within their jurisdictions, respectively. This forest planning system is necessary in forestry, where tree cultivation and management take more than half a century. However, because the plan is not formulated based on the trends in forestry in the region, there is a problem that a gap is likely to occur between the plan and its implementation. The protection forest system is a similar system in terms of forest resource management. The main types of forest protection under the forest protection system are watershed conservation forests, soil erosion prevention forests, and health conservation forests. Under the system, the national government designates forests as forest protection forests with the consent of the forest owners, and restricts the conversion and felling of the forests. Tax incentives are in place to deal with restrictions on private rights that accompany the designation of forest protection. As of 2010, the total area of ​​designated forest protection (17 types) was 12.02 million hectares, or 48% of the total forest area. Breaking this down, the area of ​​national forest protection forests is 6.9 million hectares, or 90% of the total national forests, while the area of ​​private forest protection forests is only 5.13 million hectares, or 29% of the total private forests.

[Yamagishi Kiyotaka]

"Distribution of Forest Communities and Environment," edited by Ishizuka Kazuo (1977, Asakura Publishing)""Forestry," edited by Omasa Masataka and edited by the Imperial Forest Association (1978, Kyoritsu Publishing)""Eroded Forests," by Ishi Hiroyuki (1985, Asahi Shimbun)""The Economics of Forest Environments," by Yamagishi Kiyotaka (2001, Shin Nihon Shuppansha)""New Edition: The Cultural History of Forests and Humans," by Tadaki Ryoya (2010, NHK Books)""History of Forests," by M. Deveze, translated by Inomata Reiji (Hakusuisha, Quessais-je Bunko)"

[Reference items] | Rainforest | Summergreen forest | Primeval forest | Sclerophyll forest | National forest | Natural forest | Private forest | Evergreen forest | Artificial forest | Forest ecosystem | Forest zone | Taiga | Warm temperate forest | Natural forest | Tropical rainforest | Tropical forest | Protected forest | Forestry

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

林地と林木を総称して森林とよぶ。林木とは、ある広さをもって群生する樹木のことをいい、樹木は独立ではなく、互いに相接して、その樹冠(樹木の枝葉部)は連続している。森林の最上層には高木の樹冠層があって高木層とよばれ、その下は亜高木層、低木層、草本層、地表層に層化されるという多層構造をなしている。森林には植物以外に各種の動物・微生物も多数生息し、これらの生物は相互に関連するほか、土壌や大気などの環境とも密接に結び付き、有機的結合体を構成している。このため、森林は陸上におけるもっとも大規模、かつ典型的な生態系であるといえる。

 森林はさまざまな基準によって、およそ次のように類別される。(1)成立起源や人手の加わり方による=天然林・人工林。(2)森林の外見による=高木林・低木林。(3)森林の取扱い方による=高林(高木が生育し、産業的には用材採取向きの森林)・低林(燃料などとして利用される萌芽(ほうが)によって更新した森林)・中林(高林と低林とが組み合わされた森林)。(4)林木の年齢構成による=同齢林・異齢林。(5)樹種構成による=常緑林・落葉林、針葉樹林・広葉樹林、単純林(8~9割以上が同一樹種)・混交林(2種以上が混じる)。(6)樹冠層の構成による=一段林または単層林(樹冠層が単一)・多段林または多層林(樹冠層が明らかに2層以上に区別できる)・連続層林(樹冠層組成が複雑で区別不能)。(7)人間の利用の有無による=未利用林(原生林を含む天然林)・既利用林(天然生林や人工植栽林)。

[只木良也]

世界の森林帯

森林は、降水量と気温との関連からみると、地球陸上のもっとも湿潤な地域にその成立を許されている植物群落といえる。森林生育可能な地域で、森林を目印として分類される植物帯のことを森林帯というが、今西錦司(きんじ)・吉良竜夫(きらたつお)(1919―2011)の区分(1953)に準じて世界の森林タイプを分けると次のようになる。

(1)熱帯多雨林 熱帯で気温・降水量とも十分な所に生育する常緑広葉樹林。複雑な構造と多様な樹種、巨大な現存量と生産力をもつ。また、板根・支持根・幹生花といった特異な形態の樹木、豊富な着生・寄生植物、つる植物などが生育するのが特徴である。西アフリカのコンゴ川流域、南アメリカのアマゾン川流域のほか、スマトラ島、マレー半島、ボルネオ島、ニューギニア低地などの東南アジアからオセアニアにかけてが主要分布域である。

(2)亜熱帯多雨林 亜熱帯で年中降水のある地域の常緑広葉樹林。構造は熱帯多雨林よりもやや単純となり、巨大な高木も少なくなる。ブラジル南部、アルゼンチン北部、オーストラリア東部、中国南東部がおもな分布域であるが、面積的にはさほど広くない。

(3)雨緑林 熱帯・亜熱帯の雨期と乾期のある地域で、乾期に落葉し、雨期にだけ葉をつけて生育する広葉樹林。東南アジアではモンスーン林ともいう。チークなどの樹種が有名で、森林の構造は多雨林に比べて単純となる。インド東部からインドシナ半島にかけてと、フィリピン西部、小スンダ列島などに分布がみられる。

(4)照葉樹林 東アジアの暖温帯に特有の常緑広葉樹林。葉は、冬に対応するため、小形で厚く、表面にクチクラ質の膜をもつ。したがって日光に当たると輝いてみえ、照葉樹の名があてられている。シイ類、カシ類、タブノキ、クスノキなどの林であり、その林の中は1年を通じて地表まで緑色で、湿度は高い。ヒマラヤ山地帯から中国南部を経て、台湾、南西日本に主として分布する。

(5)硬葉樹林 冬の寒さよりも夏の乾燥に対応した暖温帯の常緑広葉樹林。冬雨夏乾の地中海沿岸、南アフリカのケープ地方、オーストラリア南西部、カリフォルニア中南部、チリ中部などがおもな分布域で、耐乾性を強めるために葉は小形革質で、樹皮は厚い。オリーブやコルクガシなどは地中海地方、ユーカリはオーストラリアの代表種である。

(6)暖温帯落葉樹林 気候帯では暖温帯であるが、寒さや乾燥のために冬季落葉する広葉樹を主とする森林。ナラ類、クリ類、シデ類の広葉樹のほかに、モミ、ツガ、マツ類などの針葉樹もこの森林帯の代表種である。東アジア、アメリカ大陸など準湿潤の暖温帯に広く分布する。

(7)落葉広葉樹林 冷温帯にあって、冬季落葉するブナやナラ類などの落葉広葉樹林で、夏緑林ともよぶ。アジア、ヨーロッパ、北アメリカなどに広く分布する。

(8)常緑針葉樹林 亜寒帯を覆うモミ属、トウヒ属などの森林。北方針葉樹林、タイガなどともよばれる。北アメリカ大陸、ユーラシア大陸の北部にあって、北極を取り巻く形で分布する。なお、南半球ではこの種の森林はない。森林の構造は単純で、高木層とコケ層の2層からなることも珍しくない。

(9)落葉針葉樹林 亜寒帯の一部に現れるカラマツ類の森林。とくに、東部シベリアの極寒の地のカラマツ林は著名で、降水量は少ないが、永久凍土の表面が溶ける短い夏季に、その水を使って生育することが知られている。

[只木良也]

日本の森林帯

十分に降水量があり、南北に長く、地形的に複雑な日本には多様な森林がみられる。琉球(りゅうきゅう)・奄美(あまみ)・小笠原(おがさわら)諸島は亜熱帯に位置し、アコウ、ガジュマルなどにシイ・カシ類が混じる亜熱帯多雨林が成立するが、第二次世界大戦、および戦後の開発によって、典型的なこの種の森林はほとんどなくなった。九州以北、関東地方あたりまでの暖温帯では、シイ・カシ類、タブノキ、クスノキ、イスノキなどの照葉樹林が代表的であるが、日本文化が早くから開けた地域であったため、人間の影響が著しく、各種各様の開発を受けており、残された森林もアカマツやコナラなどの二次林に転じている。本州中部から東北地方、北海道西部にかけての冷温帯は夏緑林が占め、ブナ林によって代表される。ブナ林は日本海側で優勢で、太平洋側ではやや発達が悪く、ウラジロモミやツガなどの針葉樹も出現する。ブナ林帯に出現する樹種にはミズナラ、ニレ類、シナノキ、カエデ類などがあり、湿潤度の低い所ではミズナラが優勢であることも多い。照葉樹林は寒さに弱く、冷温帯夏緑林は暑さに弱いため、その中間帯を埋めるものとして、近畿から東北地方南部にかけての内陸部には、コナラ、シデ類、クリ、イヌブナ、モミなどの暖温帯落葉樹林が生育している。亜寒帯・亜高山帯を代表するのは常緑針葉樹林で、北海道ではトドマツ、エゾマツ、本州ではシラビソ、オオシラビソ、トウヒ、コメツガなどが優占する。なお、北海道には針葉樹と広葉樹の混交する林が、冷温帯と亜寒帯の推移帯として広く分布する。寒帯は、日本では垂直的にのみ存在し、高山帯とよばれ、ハイマツの低木林がみられる。

[只木良也]

世界の森林資源

世界の森林は、歴史的にも、また現状においても燃料、住居、家具、紙などの主要資源となっている。国連食糧農業機関(FAO:Food and Agriculture Organization)の『世界森林資源評価』(2010)によると、2010年時点の世界の森林面積は40億3300万ヘクタール、全陸地面積の31%を占めている。森林の大陸別分布形態は、ヨーロッパが世界の森林面積の25%を占め、南米21%、北中米18%、アフリカ17%、アジア15%、オセアニア5%となっている。気候帯の樹種分布では、針葉樹林はおもに亜寒帯と温帯に分布する。ロシア・シベリアのカラマツ、エゾマツ、トドマツ、北米の米(べい)ツガ、米マツ、北欧のマツ、モミ、トウヒ、日本のスギ、ヒノキ、アカマツなどが代表的な樹種である。広葉樹林は、温帯、熱帯に広く分布し、全世界の森林群落の7割近くを占めている。広葉樹は、樹種数が数千種にも及ぶとされ、樹林構成も高木、中木、低木などの重層構造をとる。このうち産業用の資源として活用される樹木は、おもに高層の大径木である。日本が合板用として東南アジアから輸入するラワン(通称名)は、熱帯雨林を代表するフタバキ科の樹種であり、1ヘクタールに数本しか存在しない高木の大径木である。森林減少が国際的に問題となっているアフリカのガボン、赤道ギニア、カメルーンなどには、高級仏具や家具などに使われるシタン、コクタンなどの樹木が存在するが、これら樹木も熱帯林を構成する高木樹種である。針葉樹林と広葉樹林との分布的な差異は、両樹木の発生史に深くかかわっている。針葉樹は、恐竜時代の白亜紀に広葉樹に先行して繁茂し、広葉樹の拡散とともに後退し、高緯度の亜寒帯や温帯の高山地帯などを分布域としたものである。これに対し、広葉樹林は、温帯から熱帯にかけて広く分布し、東南アジアやブラジル・アマゾンの熱帯雨林などは大陸スケールの群落を形成している。これら熱帯雨林は、地球温暖化物質の二酸化炭素の吸収機能をもち、また地球の「肺」といわれるまでの酸素供給機能を有している。熱帯雨林の喪失は、人類の生命維持装置を劣化させるものである。

[山岸清隆]

世界の森林利用

世界の森林利用は、木材利用の面では、燃料用の薪炭利用と製材、合板、パルプなどの産業用利用とに区分される。FAOの2012年版の統計データベース(FAOSTAT)によると、2010年時点の世界の木材生産量は34億1000万立方メートル、内訳は薪炭用材の生産が18億7000万立方メートル、55%、産業用材の生産が15億4000万立方メートル、45%となっている。薪炭利用が産業用利用を上回る利用形態は1970年代のオイルショック(石油価格高騰)からであり、石油価格の高騰に直面した開発途上諸国が木材エネルギーへの依存を強めたためである。薪炭用の木材利用率が5割を超える地域は、アフリカ(89%)、アジア(74%)、中南米(58%)などである。他方、産業用の木材利用率の高い地域は、ヨーロッパと北米の2地域であり、ヨーロッパの利用率は77%、北米の利用率は91%にも及んでいる。なお、日本の木材の利用形態は、2010年(平成22)時点では産業用としての木材利用が94%、薪炭用としての木材利用が6%となっており、北米の利用状況に近似している。

[山岸清隆]

日本の森林資源

日本の森林率は、世界のトップレベルに位置する。国連食糧農業機関(FAO)の「The Globl Forest Resources Assesment」(2012)によると、日本の国土面積は3645万ヘクタール(2005)、そのうち森林面積が2498万ヘクタール(2010)、69%を占めている。この日本の森林率は、北欧のフィンランド(73%)とともに抜きんでて高く、先進諸国のなかでは最上位にランクされる。日本への木材輸出トップのアメリカの森林率は33%、シベリアに広大な森林を擁するロシアでも49%にしかすぎない。とくに、疎林(樹冠被覆面積/林地面積=10%以上)を除く閉鎖林で比較すると、日本の森林率はフィンランドを抜いて世界のトップにランクされる。また、日本は、人工林の造成においても世界に冠たる位置を占めている。世界各国は森林の造成を自然の更新にまかせ天然林施業の段階にあるが、日本は樹木植栽による人工林施業の段階になっている。2010年(平成22)時点の人工林率(人工林面積/森林面積)は、日本が41%と群を抜いて高く、アメリカ8%、ロシア2%となっている。世界に抜きんでた日本の人工林率は、1950年代から全国各地で展開された拡大造林(薪炭林等のスギ、ヒノキ林への転換)によって築かれたものである。

[山岸清隆]

日本の森林利用

日本の森林利用は、燃料用の薪炭利用が2%ときわめて少なく、産業用の利用が98%を占めている。『森林・林業白書』(2012年版)の資料によると、2010年(平成22)時点におけるこの産業用材の用途は、製材用が58%、パルプ用が26%、合板用等が16%となっている。森林の利用において産業用の利用比率が日本に似通っている北米、ヨーロッパなどは、製材用に比してパルプ用の比率が相対的に高く、日本との差異がみられる。この差異は、建築様式(非木質系、木質系)の差異だけでなく、2000年にも及ぶ日本の「木の文化」と深くかかわっている。青森県で発掘された縄文遺跡の三内丸山(さんないまるやま)遺跡からは、巨大な木造構造物や木造建造物群が発掘されている。また、奈良時代には、東大寺にみられるように世界最大の木造建築物が構築されている。さらに、室町時代からは、木造建築物による城下町の開設が各地で行われ、日本の特有の「木の文化」が形成され発展されてきた。この木造建築の伝統・文化が21世紀の今日においても継承され、製材用の木材用途を高めているのである。また、樹木の面においても、日本にはスギ、ヒノキなどの製材用の有用樹種が存在している。これらの材種は、モンスーン地帯特有の高温多質の気候・風土に適合した住宅用材であり、防腐・防蟻(ぼうぎ)(シロアリ等)などにも耐性のある材種である。なお、森林利用には、上記のような林業的利用以外に、県民の森・市町村の森などのレクリエーション利用、自然観察・森林生態系学習などの教育的利用、高齢者や認知症患者などの機能回復を図る理学療法的利用などがある。とくに、森林の理学療法的利用は、高齢化社会に即応した森林の利用方式として注視されるものである。

[山岸清隆]

日本の森林計画

日本の森林計画は、私有林も含めて国土全体の森林の資源管理を行う制度であり、国際的には日本をおいて他にみることのできない制度である。この森林計画が制度として法制化されるのは、1951年(昭和26)の森林法の改正によってである。発足の経緯は、農地改革と深くかかわっている。1940年代後半に行われた農地改革は、土地改革の性格をもっていたものの、土地の解放が耕地に限定され、山林などは改革の対象外とされた。この代償措置として、政府は国有林などを対象とした未墾地買収や牧野解放などを認めてきた。農地改革の最終年の1951年に、政府は森林法の改正を行うが、そこではこれらの事業の終了を法的に明示する一方、当時の緊急問題であった150万ヘクタールにも及ぶ戦時荒廃林地の復旧ならびに復興用木材の確保を図ることを目的に、森林計画制度を創設した。したがって、森林計画制度は、国土の全森林を対象とする計画制度とされ、国の計画が地方計画に優先する仕組みとなっている。まず、農林水産大臣は、「森林資源に関する基本計画」「林産物需給の長期見通し」「保安林の整備状況」を踏まえ、15年を1期に5年を単位とした実施計画を盛り込んだ全国森林計画(伐採計画、造林計画、林道開設計画、保安施設整備事業計画)を策定する。この全国森林計画に基づいて、都道府県知事は域内の民有林を対象に、森林管理局長は管内の国有林を対象に10年を1期に5年を単位とした実施計画を盛り込んだ地域森林計画を策定する。こうした森林計画制度は、樹木の育成・管理に半世紀以上もの年月を要する林業においては必要な制度である。しかし、計画の立案が地域の林業動向をベースに積み上げて策定される方式でないため、計画と実行とに乖離(かいり)が生じやすいという問題を抱えている。なお、森林の資源管理という点で類似したものに、保安林制度がある。水源涵養(かんよう)保安林、土砂流出防備保安林、保健保安林などは、保安林制度の主要な保安林である。制度内容は、国が山林所有者の「同意」を得て対象森林を保安林に指定し、山林の転用や伐採などを制限するものである。保安林指定に伴う私権制限に対しては、税制面での優遇措置などが設けられている。2010年(平成22)時点の保安林指定(17種類)面積は1202万ヘクタール、全森林面積の48%となっている。内訳は、国有林は保安林指定面積が690万ヘクタール、国有林全体の90%にも及んでいるのに対して、民有林は保安林指定面積が513万ヘクタール、民有林全体の29%にとどまっている。

[山岸清隆]

『石塚和雄編『群落の分布と環境』(1977・朝倉書店)』『大政正隆監修、帝国森林会編『森林学』(1978・共立出版)』『石弘之著『蝕まれる森林』(1985・朝日新聞社)』『山岸清隆著『森林環境の経済学』(2001・新日本出版社)』『只木良也著『新版 森と人間の文化史』(2010・NHKブックス)』『M・ドヴェーズ著、猪俣礼二訳『森林の歴史』(白水社・文庫クセジュ)』

[参照項目] | 雨緑林 | 夏緑林 | 原生林 | 硬葉樹林 | 国有林 | 自然林 | 私有林 | 照葉樹林 | 人工林 | 森林生態系 | 森林帯 | タイガ | 暖温帯林 | 天然林 | 熱帯多雨林 | 熱帯林 | 保安林 | 林業

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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