There are two types of words that express kinship relationships: terms of address, which are used to address someone, and terms of reference, which are used to refer to someone. Research on the latter has progressed more. Systematic comparative research on kinship terms began with L. H. Morgan in the 19th century. Morgan was intrigued by the fact that the American Indians he came into contact with called their father and father's brothers, and their mother and mother's sisters by the same names. He named systems that distinguish between father and father's brothers and mother and mother's sisters, as in our society, "descriptive systems," and systems that do not distinguish between the two, that is, between lineal and collateral relatives of the same generation, "classificatory systems." Later, through comparative research, he proposed three types of naming systems ( ). He considered that the naming system corresponded to the society's past marriage system, and that the Malai type, in which biological fathers were not distinguished from male relatives of the same generation, arose from a primitive marriage form in which biological brothers and sisters had indiscriminate sexual relations and therefore children did not know who their biological fathers were, while the Turano-Ganowano type, in which father's sisters were distinguished from mothers, arose from a slightly more advanced form of marriage, Punarua, in which marriage between biological brothers and sisters was prohibited but the husband's brothers formed a group and had sexual relations with a group of his wife's sisters. Of course, this theory is completely rejected today. There was a major error in reducing the meaning of names to biological facts. There is no basis for thinking that a name used in common by a father and his father's brothers means the father as a biological birth parent. In their criticism of Morgan's theory, A. Clover and R. Lowy tried to analyze kinship names not as something that directly corresponds to social organizations but as a way of classifying kin based on certain criteria. Lowy proposed the following four types of kinship types, which are based on three different criteria for relatives of the same generation: (1) sex, (2) lineal or collateral lineage, and (3) paternal or maternal lineage ( ). Morgan's Malay type corresponds to a generational type that classifies relatives based only on sex, the Turano-Ganowan type corresponds to a bipartite merger type that distinguishes relatives by sex and paternal or maternal lineage, and the Aryan-Semitic type corresponds to a lineal type that classifies relatives by sex and lineal or collateral lineage.Later, G.P. Murdoch added six types to Lowy's classification, taking into account the differences in how people refer to female relatives of the same generation (female cousins). [1] Eskimo type: Parallel and cross cousins are all given the same name, but sisters are given different names. [2] Hawaiian type: Sisters, parallel cousins, and cross cousins are all called by the same name. [3] Sudanese pattern: Different names are given to paternal and maternal cross cousins, and a distinction is also made between sisters and parallel cousins. [4] Iroquois type: Paternal and maternal cross cousins are given the same name to distinguish them from sisters, but parallel cousins are given the same name as sisters. [5] Omaha type: In this type, paternal and maternal cross cousins are given different names, and a distinction is made between sisters and parallel cousins, but paternal cross cousins are called by the same name as the daughter of a sister, and maternal cross cousins are called by the same name as the mother's sister. [6] Claw type: Paternal and maternal cross cousins are given different names to distinguish them from sisters and parallel cousins, but paternal cross cousins are given the same name as the father's sisters, and maternal cross cousins are given the same name as the brother's daughters. The Eskimo, Hawaiian, and Sudanese types correspond to the lineal, generational, and bipartite, paradoxical, lineal, and lineal types of Lowi, respectively, while the Iroquois, Omaha, and Crow types can be considered as subdivisions of the bipartite merger type. and illustrate the nomenclature systems of the Omaha and Crow types. The same name is used for members of different generations, but this phenomenon is somewhat understandable if we consider each as the arrangement of relatives in patrilineal and matrilineal groups. In , the members of one's own matrilineage are surrounded by solid lines, and the members of one's father's matrilineage are surrounded by dotted lines. We can see that the Crow nomenclature system is based on the principle that within one's own matrilineal group, generations are clearly distinguished in addition to gender, while within one's father's matrilineal group, generations are not distinguished. Name 1 corresponds to the common characteristic of being a male in one's father's matrilineal group. Regardless of their generation, the people referred to by names 7 and 8 share the same status as children of members of a matrilineal group who do not belong to my matrilineal group.These facts give rise to hope that we can once again relate kinship naming systems to social organization, but in reality, things are not so simple. Murdoch himself assumed that the discrepancy between the naming system and the existing social organization was due to a time lag between changes in social organization and changes in the naming system, and attempted to reconstruct the history of social organization based on this assumption, but his attempt has not been approved by most anthropologists. Recently, there has been a growing number of voices questioning the very operation of creating a type based only on some characteristics of the naming system (for example, cousin names), as Murdoch did. In particular, as it has become known that the societies classified by Murdoch as being of the same type are diverse and completely different in many other respects, the usefulness of such classifications has become increasingly doubtful. In this context, Needham has recently proposed a formal classification that focuses on the overall characteristics of kinship nomenclature systems, while stating that each system should be analyzed individually according to its nature. According to this classification, kinship nomenclature systems are broadly divided into those that are genealogical and those that are not, and among genealogical systems, a distinction is made between those that are prescriptive and those that are not, and among prescriptive systems, those that are objective and those that are not. As is evident from the terminology, this classification places emphasis on the aspect of regulating marriage. However, compared to those of Lowy and Murdoch, this classification has not been widely adopted among anthropologists, and its usefulness must be examined in the future. [Mitsuru Hamamoto] [Reference] |©Shogakukan "> Kinship names (Morgan's three types) [Figure A] ©Shogakukan "> Kinship names (Loewy's four types) [Figure B] ©Shogakukan "> Kinship names (Omaha type) [Figure C] ©Shogakukan "> Family name (claw type) [Figure D] Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
親族関係を表すことばで、相手をよぶ際に用いる呼称term of addressと、相手に言及する際に用いる名称term of referenceがある。研究が進んでいるのは後者のほうである。親族名称の組織的な比較研究は、19世紀のL・H・モルガンに始まる。モルガンは、彼が接したアメリカ・インディアンが、父と父の兄弟、母と母の姉妹を同一の名称でよんでいることに興味を覚え、われわれの社会におけるように、父と父の兄弟、母と母の姉妹を区別するものを「記述的体系」、この両者、つまり同一世代の直系親族と傍系親族を区別しないものを「類別的体系」と名づけた。のちに、比較研究を通じて、彼は名称体系の3類型を提出した( )。彼は、名称体系がその社会の過去の結婚制度に対応していると考え、実の父を同じ世代の親族男性から区別しないマライ型は、実の兄弟姉妹が無差別に性的交渉をもち、それゆえ子供には実の父がだれであるかわからない原始的な結婚形態から生じ、父の姉妹を母から区別するトゥラノ・ガノワノ型は、それよりもやや進んだ、実の兄弟姉妹の結婚は禁じながら、夫の兄弟たちが一団となって妻の姉妹たちの集団と性的交渉をもつプナルア婚から生じたものと考えた。もちろん、この学説は今日では完全に否定されている。名称の意味を生物学的事実に還元した点に大きな誤りがあったのである。父と父の兄弟に共通に用いられる名称が、生物学的な産みの親としての父を意味すると考える根拠はどこにもない。モルガンの学説を批判するなかで、A・クローバーやR・ローウィは、親族名称を社会組織と直接対応するものとしてではなく、いくつかの基準をもとに親族を分類する仕方として分析しようとした。ローウィは、同一世代の親族に対し(1)性別、(2)直系か傍系か、(3)父方であるか母方であるか、の三つの基準を異なる仕方で採用したものとして、次の4類型を提出した( )。モルガンのマライ型は、親族の分類に性別のみを基準とする世代型に、トゥラノ・ガノワノ型は、性別と父方か母方かで親族を区別する双岐性の二つの基準による双岐合併型に、アーリア・セム型は、性別と直系か傍系かで親族を分類した直系型におのおの対応している。のちにG・P・マードックは、ローウィの分類に、自分と同じ世代の女性親族(女性のいとこ)の呼び方の違いを加味した、6類型を提出した。 〔1〕エスキモー型 平行いとこ、交差いとこにはすべて同じ名称を与えるが、姉妹にはそれとは違う名称をあてる。 〔2〕ハワイ型 姉妹、平行いとこ、交差いとこをすべて同一名称でよぶ。 〔3〕スーダン型 父方交差いとこと母方交差いとこに異なる名称を与え、さらに姉妹や平行いとことも区別する。 〔4〕イロコイ型 父方・母方の交差いとこに同一の名称を与え、姉妹と区別するが、平行いとこには姉妹と同一の名称を与える。 〔5〕オマハ型 父方と母方の交差いとこにそれぞれ異なる名称を与え、姉妹、平行いとことも区別するが、父方交差いとこは姉妹の娘と同じ名称でよばれ、母方交差いとこは母の姉妹と同じ名称でよばれる。 〔6〕クロー型 父方と母方の交差いとこにそれぞれ異なる名称を与え、姉妹、平行いとこと区別するが、父方交差いとこは父の姉妹と、母方交差いとこは兄弟の娘と同じ名称をあてられる。 エスキモー型、ハワイ型、スーダン型は、ローウィの直系型、世代型、双岐傍系型におのおの対応し、イロコイ型、オマハ型、クロー型は、双岐合併型を細分化したものと考えることもできる。 ・ は、オマハ型、クロー型の名称体系を図示したものである。異なる世代の者に同じ名称が用いられているのが特徴であるが、おのおのを父系集団および母系集団のなかでの親族の配置と考えれば、この現象もある程度納得がいく。 において、自己の母系リネージの成員を実線で、父の母系リネージの成員を点線で囲んでみた。クロー型の名称体系が、自己の母系集団内では性別のほかに世代を明確に区別し、父の母系集団内では世代の区別を行わない、という原理に基づいたものであることがわかる。名称1は、父の母系集団の男性という共通の特徴に対応するものである。名称7・8でよばれる人々は、世代には関係なく、私の母系集団に属さない、母系集団成員の子供という、共通した地位をもっている。こうした事実は、ふたたび親族名称体系を社会組織と関係づけうるという期待を抱かせるが、実際は、事はそう単純ではない。マードック自身は、名称体系と現存する社会組織とのずれを、社会組織の変化と名称体系の変化との時間的ずれに起因するものと想定し、これをもとに社会組織の歴史の再構成を試みたが、彼のこの試みは大部分の人類学者の賛同を得るに至っていない。最近では、マードックが行ったように、名称体系の一部の特徴(たとえばいとこ名称)のみに基づいて類型をつくるという操作そのものを疑問視する声も高まっている。とりわけ、マードックによって同じ型に分類された社会が、他の多くの点で似ても似つかない雑多なものであることが知られるにつれ、こういった分類の有用性は、ますます疑わしいものとなってきた。 こういったなかで、ニーダムは最近、個々の親族名称体系はそれに即して個別的に分析されるべきだ、としながらも、体系の全体的特徴に焦点を置いた形式的分類を提出している。それによると、親族名称体系は有系的であるか否かで大きく分けられ、さらに有系的なもののうちでも、規定的か否か、規定的なもののうちでさらに、対象的であるか非対象的であるか、といった区別がたてられるという。この分類は、その用語法からも知られるように、婚姻規制の側面に重点を置いたものである。しかしこの分類は、ローウィやマードックのものに比べて、人類学者の間で広く採用されるには至っておらず、その有用性は今後の検討にまたれねばならない。 [濱本 満] [参照項目] |©Shogakukan"> 親族名称(モルガンの3類型)〔図A〕 ©Shogakukan"> 親族名称(ローウィの4類型)〔図B〕 ©Shogakukan"> 親族名称(オマハ型)〔図C〕 ©Shogakukan"> 親族名称(クロー型)〔図D〕 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
<<: Mind is reason - Shinsokuri
>>: Neue Sachlichkeit (English: New Objectivity) German
…Furthermore, depending on the type of building, ...
...Generalizing this concept, linear independence...
A Buddhist philosopher and educator from the Meij...
There are many examples of paintings depicting th...
An evergreen tree of the legume family, native to ...
?-1634 A samurai from the early Edo period. A sam...
This is the major work of D. Ricardo, the perfecto...
The legal system during the period when samurai w...
A mythical place name found in Japanese mythology....
This gospel of unknown authorship is said to be t...
Born: December 9, 1717, Stendal [Died] June 8, 176...
...Even in the Baroque period, it was not fully e...
...At the foot of the Zagros Mountains, there is ...
...This procedural format means that the law regu...
A type of thin display. It is a display device th...