New Drama - Shingeki

Japanese: 新劇 - しんげき

It is one of the new theatrical genres that developed in Japan after the Meiji period, and is used almost synonymously with Japan's modern and contemporary theatrical movement as opposed to the "old theater" that referred to traditional theater such as Noh, Kyogen, and Kabuki. The term "new theater" first came into general use in a theater review in the Asahi Shimbun in 1913 (Taisho 2).

In terms of content, shingeki is an artistic theatrical form that is based on drama, a literary genre that ranks alongside novels and poetry, and expresses the entire content of the drama through the cooperation of a group centered around actors (ensemble). In other words, it is the Japanese version of modern drama performances that grew in European civil society, but more narrowly, it is the Japanese version of the modern drama movement that was born in Europe at the end of the 19th century. It is also a small theater movement that aims for unified stage performances based on the philosophy of the theater company, as opposed to the commercial and profit-making trend of entertainment-oriented well-made plays that aim to highlight popular actors. Therefore, shingeki requires the presence of a director, which was not present in traditional Japanese theater, which emphasizes the transmission of "forms," and it is common to aim for unification of the style and method of interpretation of the performed plays and stage performances under the artistic guidance of the director. Although Shinpa theater and Shinkokugeki are not "old theater," they are rather considered to be part of the "old theater" lineage in that they prioritize the art of certain actors based on popular and entertaining scripts, and modern plays performed in large theaters that are backed by entertainment capital and that put the charm and skill of star actors at the forefront are also not included in the category of new theater. However, today, new theater has undergone some transformation to reflect the changes and diversification of society, and the old schema of commercial theater versus new theater is somewhat fading.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Early History

The history of shingeki is generally considered to have begun with the founding of the Bungei Kyokai in 1906 (Meiji 39), but even before that there had been some movements towards modernising theatre, including trial and error. After the Meiji Restoration, even in the world of traditional kabuki, zangirimono (traditional Japanese plays) that introduced the new customs of the time and katsureki (live history plays) that rejected the absurdity of jidai kyogen (historical plays) and emphasized historical fact appeared, and outside playwrights such as Fukuchi Ochi, who differed from the traditional resident playwrights, also became active.

Thus, while the possibility of "new drama" was harbored, a trend was emerging that converged on the improvement and modernization of Kabuki. One example of this was Tsubouchi Shoyo's theory of historical drama "Historical Dramas of Our Country" (1893-1894) and its historical drama "Kirihitoha" (1894-1895), which was his practical application of the theory. These were originally corresponding to the attempts in literature (novels) such as "The Essence of the Novel" and "The Disposition of a Modern Shosei", but unlike the case of novels, the pre-modern nature of Kabuki was not completely rejected, and they were merely partial improvements on historical kyogen. On the other hand, Kitamura Tokoku constructed a world completely separate from Kabuki in his play "Horaikyoku" (1891), but the dialogue was entirely literary.

Furthermore, the movement of soshi-shibai (reformed Japanese theatre), which was launched in 1888 (Meiji 21) by the Liberal Party's stalwart Sudo Sadanori and others under the name "Japanese Reformed Theatre," was initially groundbreaking in its significance of uniting social change and theatrical creation, but lacked the technical foundations in terms of acting, and the new school theatre that grew out of it also matured technically but lost its ideological aspect, becoming more and more like a variant of Kabuki.In this sense, the words of Osanai Kaoru, a pioneer of new theatre, who spoke at the start of the movement, "A certain new theatre that is neither Kabuki theatre nor New School theatre," can be said to have defined the meaning and direction of "new theatre" himself.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Literary Association and Free Theatre

The Literary Arts Association was originally founded by Shimamura Hogetsu at Tokyo Senmon Gakko (the predecessor of Waseda University), and held its inaugural ceremony in 1906 (Meiji 39) with the aim of promoting literary arts in general. At the performing arts club meeting in the autumn of the same year, parts of plays such as "The Merchant of Venice" and "A Paulownia Leaf" were performed. Then, in 1909, Tsubouchi Shoyo took the lead, establishing a theatrical research institute attached to the association in his own home and launching groundbreaking theatrical activities, beginning with training actors, including actresses. However, Shoyo's theatrical philosophy was not limited to promoting the modern drama movement in the narrow sense, but also included an aspect of improving Kabuki theater. The performances of "Hamlet" and "A Doll's House" by the institute's first class, actress Matsui Sumako, and others, attracted attention for their unprecedented new stage style, even if there were problems with the technical aspects.

On the other hand, Kaoru Oyamauchi teamed up with the innovative Kabuki actor Ichikawa Sadanji II to launch the Free Theatre Company in 1909 with Ibsen's John Gabriel Borkman. As its name suggests, the company aimed to promote the free theatre movement (modern theatre movement) in Europe. The main activity of the company was to introduce modern European dramas, and it gained strong support from naturalist writers such as Mori Ogai, Shimazaki Toson, and Tayama Katai, who gathered in the "Ibsen Society". It was almost 20 years after the appearance of "Floating Clouds," the first modern novel in Japan. However, Sadanji's school only had female actors, and they were still feeling their way through modern directing techniques, so they were unable to get rid of the "old theatre" style of acting.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

The Rise and Fall of New Theater Companies and the Taisho Drama Period

The Jiyugeki Theater continued for 10 years, but gradually tapered off due to the influx of Kabuki performances by the Sadanji school, and was dissolved after the 9th performance in 1919 (Taisho 8). The Bungei Kyokai also split in 1913 with the withdrawal of Hogetsu, Sumako and others, and the Geijutsuza formed by Hogetsu and Sumako, and the Mumeikai and Butai Kyokai formed by former association members. In addition to these, many new theater companies were born and then disappeared during the Taisho period, showing a hectic transition, including the Modern Drama Association of Kamiyama Sojin and others, the New Drama Company of Iba Takashi and others, the Touro Company of Murata Minoru and others, and the New Drama Association of Hatanaka Ryoha (1877-1959) and others. In response to these trends, literary figures transcending schools and tendencies, such as Mushanokoji Saneatsu, Kinoshita Mokutaro, Yoshii Isamu, Arishima Takeo, Satomi Ton, Nakamura Kichizo, Nagata Hideo, Masamune Hakucho, Kikuchi Kan, Kume Masao, and Akita Ujaku, began to write modern plays, and thus came into being a period of prosperity in dramatic literature known as the "Taisho Drama Period."

The Geijutsuza Theatre, which represents this period, walked the path of popularization, and in particular its 1914 production of "Resurrection" (based on an original story by Tolstoy), which featured Sumako singing "Katyusha's Song" (composed by Nakayama Shinpei), became a huge hit. The issue of popularizing and professionalizing new theater, which contains such elements of vulgarization, is a major problem that the new theater world faces even today. However, on the other hand, Hogetsu envisioned the future of new theater through a "dual path," such as by establishing a small theater called the Ushigome Art Club and performing modern plays such as Tolstoy's "The Power of Darkness," but he died suddenly just as this project was beginning, and Sumako followed suit, and the Geijutsuza Theatre came to an end in 1919. It is extremely difficult to draw a clear line between whether the programs of the new theater companies of this period, and all of the Taisho-era plays that responded to them, are fully dramas in the form of modern theater (shingeki), or whether they are more suited to the modernizing attempts of the innovative actors of Kabuki and Shinpa.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Tsukiji Little Theatre

Tsukiji Little Theatre was Japan's first fully-fledged modern theatre, built by Hijikata Yoshi, who had returned to Japan after hearing of the Great Kanto Earthquake while studying in Europe, and with the help of his teacher Oyamauchi Kaoru, and using his own funds, and opened in June 1924 (Taisho 13). This marked the birth of Japan's first "non-commercial" and "ideal small theatre" with the slogans "a theatrical laboratory," "a permanent venue for new theatre," and "a show tent for the people," and was a landmark event in the history of Japanese theatre. However, what was born in Europe at the end of the century was born in Japan a quarter of a century into the 20th century, and this problematic nature was also reflected in the selection of three plays for the first performance: Chekhov's "Swan Song," Mazo's "Day Off," and Goering's "The Naval Battle." When the company was first established, Osanai stated that he had no desire to direct Japanese plays due to his own strict theatrical ideals, provoking opposition from Yamamoto Yuzo, Kishida Kunio and others. However, two years later, they staged Tsubouchi Shoyo's "En no Gyoja" and went on to stage a total of 27 Japanese plays by Mushanokoji, Akita, Kitamura Komatsu (1901-1964), Fujimori Seikichi and others. However, with Osanai's death, internal conflicts within the company came to the surface, and in 1929 (Showa 4), the company split into two: the Tsukiji Little Theater Company and the Shin-Tsukiji Theater Company.

The characteristic and achievement of Tsukiji Little Theater's activities over the five years was the diverse performance of about 90 modern European plays, and it can be said that it fully fulfilled its role as a "laboratory" based on the foundation of a "permanent theater" as originally envisaged. Furthermore, the achievements of the backstage staff's training in stage design, lighting, costumes, effects, etc., which supported this, should not be overlooked, and it was through the experiments of this Little Theater that these and the work of directors became widely recognized as specialized artistic fields essential to theatrical creation. Actors such as Yamamoto Yasue, Senda Koreya, Tamura Akiko, Sugimura Haruko, Takizawa Osamu, and Higashiyama Chieko also graduated from here. Tsukiji Little Theater was, so to speak, the direct source of today's new theater, especially in terms of its technical aspects.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Proletarian Theatre Movement

In parallel with the Tsukiji Little Theater, around 1920 (Taisho 9), a proletarian theater movement aimed at unifying social change and theatrical creation began to develop, reflecting the growth of the working class. Its full-scale activities began with the founding of the avant-garde theater in 1926, and its successor, the Tokyo Left Theater, took center stage. In 1929 (Showa 4), a nationwide organization, the Japan Proletarian Theater Alliance (later the Japan Proletarian Theater Alliance, both abbreviated as Plot), was formed. The central figures in these activities were Sasaki Takamaru (1898-1986), Murayama Tomoyoshi, and Sano Seki, who produced excellent works such as Murayama's "The Yakuza Chronicle" (1929). Hijikata Yoshi and other members of the Shintsukiji Theater Company also joined Plot and were active, penetrating among workers and intellectuals with productions such as "All Quiet on the Western Front" (based on an original work by Remarque), but Plot was dissolved in 1934 due to government oppression. This movement created a new, popular audience, and although there were some errors due to immaturity, such as the creation of plays with revolutionary themes, theoretical exploration of theatrical theory, and struggle against the censorship system, its ideological and spiritual legacy has been passed down to the present day.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Shinkyo Shintsukiji Theater Company and Tsukijiza

In 1934 (Showa 9), when Plot was dissolved, the New Kyodo Theater Company was formed mainly by the old left-wing theaters, following Murayama Tomoyoshi's "advocacy for the unity of new theater companies," and entered an era of coexistence with the Shintsukiji Theater Company. Until they were forced by the authorities to "voluntarily disband" in August 1940, they continued to perform progressive, conscientious, and high-quality performances, creating the pinnacle of new theater before World War II. It can be said that the techniques cultivated at the Tsukiji Little Theater and the ideas sown by Plot were cross-fertilized based on reflection on the experience of Plot's failure, resulting in a maturity. In addition to plays (including adaptations) by Kubo Sakae's Volcanic Ash Land two-part series (1937-1938), Hisaita Eijiro, Miyoshi Juro, Ito Teisuke (1901-1947), Murayama Tomoyoshi, and others, the classical heritage of Europe (Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller, etc.), which had been ignored in the Plott era due to the mechanical view of class history, was rediscovered, and the issue of realism in theater was explored both theoretically and practically.

Meanwhile, Kyosuke Tomoda, one of the founding members of the Tsukiji Little Theater, and his wife Akiko Tamura formed the Tsukijiza Theater in 1932 with Kishida Kunio and Kubota Mantaro, who were in conflict with Oyamauchi, as advisors, and began their activities under the banner of non-political, artistic theater. In the same year, up-and-coming playwrights such as Kishida's disciples, Chikao Tanaka and Yuji Koyama, responded by founding the magazine Gekisaku, from which works such as Tanaka's Ofukuro (Mother) (1933) and Koyama's Children of the Seto Inland Sea (1934) were born.

Even after the Tsukijiza split and was dissolved, its ideals were carried on by the Bungakuza, founded in 1937, which strengthened its anti-Shinkyo and Shintsukiji affiliation. Its strength was later weakened by Tomoda's death in the war and Tamura's retirement, but Sugimura Haruko and others continued its activities, focusing on original plays by Kubota, Kishida, Mafune Yutaka, Izawa Tadasu and others.

After the dissolution of Shinkyo and Shinchikuji, former theater company members found themselves in a variety of different situations, such as joining traveling theater troupes that were permitted under the wartime system, amid the difficult circumstances of arrests and releases from prison. Among these, Senda Koreya brought together actors from beyond the framework of Shinkyo and Shinchikuji to found Haiyuza in 1944 (Showa 19), while some, like Maruyama Sadao, lost their lives in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima while performing on the road.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

From the postwar period to the 1960s

The post-World War II new theater movement, which began with a joint performance of The Cherry Orchard (by Chekhov) in December 1945, was not simply a revival of the aborted pre-war new theater companies. Based on reflections on the history of new theater, Senda Koreya, the head of Haiyuza, advocated a fresh start by establishing "theatrical (acting and actor) academicism" and "modern acting techniques," and he focused on experimental performances of modern Japanese plays, as well as European classical and modern classical plays with an emphasis on comedy. The construction of the Haiyuza Theater (1954) and the opening of the attached actor training school (the predecessor to the Drama Department of Toho Gakuen College of Art and Design) (1949) were also part of these activities, and from the latter young actors joined existing theater companies, as well as forming new theater companies such as Gekidan Nakama, Shinjinkai, Sankikai (now Tokyo Theater Ensemble), and Seinenza, which became a new force in the new theater world. On the other hand, Murayama Tomoyoshi re-established the Shinkyo Theater Company (Second Edition) shortly after the war, but due to the influence of internal conflicts within the Japanese Communist Party (the "50-year problem") and other factors, it dwindled and was re-launched as the Tokyo Metropolitan Theatre in 1959 (Showa 34). Kubo Sakae also teamed up with Takizawa Osamu (formerly Shinkyo) and Susukida Kenji (formerly Shinchiku) to form the Tokyo Metropolitan Theatre just after the war, but they broke up due to problems with unifying politics and theater. The People's Art Theatre (First Edition Mingei) led by Takizawa, Uno Jukichi (formerly Shinkyo) and others also broke up due to the same problem, and in 1950 (Showa 25) it was relaunched as the Mingei Theater Company, aiming for a realist approach. On the other hand, Bungakuza, which survived the war with productions such as Morimoto Kaoru's "A Woman's Life" (starring Sugimura Haruko), basically continued the direction it had taken before the war and staged non-political, artistic plays. However, while in the 1930s only the progressive Shintsukiji Theater Company staged Shakespeare from a realist perspective, after the war the Bungakuza Theater (directed by Fukuda Tsuneari) appeared, which countered this tendency, indicating that the gears of new theatrical history had turned once, marking the postwar stage.

This arrangement of three or four major theater companies and medium-sized and smaller theater companies did not change much even after the 1960 New Theater People's Conference to Prevent the Security Treaty (later the New Theater People's Conference to Break the Security Regime), which brought together postwar new theater people, and the leaders of prewar new theater continued to dominate the new theater world. In the stages after 1960, the Mingei Theater Company achieved particularly outstanding results with the serial performances of Volcanic Ash Land and new productions such as Otto Called the Japanese (1962), written by Kinoshita Junji and directed by Uno Jukichi.

In general, after the war, other writers such as Junji Kinoshita, Michio Kato, Rinzo Shiina, Sumie Tanaka, Tsuneari Fukuda, Kobo Abe, Yukio Mishima, Matsuyo Akimoto, and Yoshiyuki Fukuda were active alongside the prewar generation, and Ohashi Kiichi (1917-2012) and Ken Miyamoto emerged from the independent theater (workplace theater) movement, which was boosted by the "postwar reforms." Another notable achievement of the postwar new theater movement was the nationwide organization of audience groups of workers and citizens (the so-called Labor Theater), which made a great contribution to maintaining the performance income of theater companies by cultivating new theater audiences. Following the introduction of the Stanislavski system immediately after the end of the war, interest also grew and became the subject of discussion in trends in the theater world abroad, such as Brecht's narrative theater, Sartre's existentialist theater, and Beckett's absurdist theater.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

Current Status

Thus, the reorganization of the new theater was almost complete in the first half of the 1960s, but from the second half of the 1960s, doubts about naturalistic methods led to a retreat from the realist tone, and new plays and performances that made full use of irrational theatrical space and time became prominent. Furthermore, a small theater movement called "underground theater" (also known as angura theater), which began in the second half of the 1960s, began to spread, and under the banner of rejecting the supremacy of drama and restoring the physicality of the actor, it gained the support of the younger generation and formed a corner of the new theater world. Writers and directors such as Terayama Shuji, Shimizu Kunio, Betsuyaku Minoru, Kara Juro, Suzuki Tadashi (1939-), Sato Makoto (1943-), Saito Ren (1940-2011), and Ninagawa Yukio were active at venues such as Situation Theatre, Waseda Little Theatre (later SCOT), Underground Free Theatre (later 68/71), Tenjo Sajiki, and Gendaijin Theatre (later Sakurasha). They called for the "dismantling of universities" and shared the social trend of completely denying the established order, as represented by the student movement of this period, which was filled with violence within. They saw the "new theater," which started out by isolating itself from traditional theater, as having become a complement to the established order, and presented a theatrical stance of completely denying the underlying ideals of modern theater, and even modernity itself. There is a question as to whether this type of theatrical phenomenon should be placed in the category of "new theater." However, those who came to be called the "first generation" of small theater actors were born out of "new theater" and started out with a sense of rivalry against it, just like Sato Makoto and Saito Ren, who founded the Free Theater, both of whom graduated from the Haiyuza Training School.

Nevertheless, they were supported by a new audience that the existing new theater could not capture, which was a sharp difference. With the "high growth" of the Japanese economy, society became extremely urbanized, and many young people flocked to big cities. They could not help but feel lonely in the crowd because there was almost no solidarity between strangers. There was anxiety and impatience about the future where high social status and income were not guaranteed even if people entered university because the rate of students going on to higher education increased rapidly, and there was vague rebellion and criticism against the unknown society that forced these things upon them. The stage expressions of small theater represented and resonated with the feelings and mentality of these new young people. Therefore, the subjective stage of small theater, which prioritized emotion over logic and put physical expression at the forefront, enthusiastically evoked the sympathy of the young people who gathered there, but for that very reason, there was a high possibility that they would fall into self-satisfaction and be satisfied with each other alone, and they had the problem of rejecting from the start the desire to create a more universal theatrical language and logic. As a result, the impact of small theaters waned in line with the collapse of the student movement. Instead, they came to be recognized as a kind of cultural phenomenon, and came to occupy a proper place in the theater world and in the social order (there are many examples of actors from small theaters who have become talented TV actors, and there are no rumors of them refusing). The turning point in the Japanese economy, condensed by the "oil shock" of 1973, was probably behind this turning point. A symbolic phenomenon was when Ninagawa Yukio, who left the New Theater Company Seihai and formed the Modern People Theater with Okada Eiji (1920-1995) and others, after working with Shimizu Kunio in the Sakurasha Company, was welcomed by the entertainment company Toho in 1974 and directed Romeo and Juliet, which can be considered a modern classic, at the large Nissay Theater.

Following this, the so-called "second generation" began to flourish, led by Tsuka Kohei, who made a spectacular appearance with "Atami Murder Case" (1973) (naturally, as time went on, the "third generation" and "fourth generation" would also appear). The difference between the "first generation" and the "second generation" was that they were stage expressions that emphasized the humor of nonsense and parody, and the fun of wordplay, in other words, comedy. However, the stage, which is based on a fluid performance script that emphasizes improvisation in close contact with the audience and actors, is completely disconnected from the idea of modern theater, which seeks to express the world of drama as an established literary work. Of course, this plays a part in the contemporary theater of this country, and it is not uncommon for established new theater companies to perform the works of playwrights who started out in small theater (in the first place, Tsuka's "Atami Murder Case" itself was published in the magazine "Shingeki" and premiered at the Bungakuza Atelier). In other words, it may be permissible to say that contemporary Japanese theater has become fluid, diverse, and multi-layered, centering on "new theater." However, in order to enrich contemporary Japanese theater and not just be a passing fad among a certain circle, the creation of plays with objective and universal power is a prerequisite, and we have to say that the active and critical inheritance of the heritage of "new theater," and by extension, modern theater, remains one of the challenges facing contemporary Japanese theater.

In the midst of this transition, the work of Yamamoto Yasuhide, whose play Yuzuru (written by Kinoshita Junji) has now reached 1,000 performances, can be seen as a symbolic example of the achievements of postwar new theater. However, the first generation of new theater, including Yamamoto Yasuhide, that is, theater people such as Yamamoto, Senda Koreya, Takizawa Osamu, Sugimura Haruko, and Uno Jukichi, who cultivated their theatrical foundations at Tsukiji Little Theater and proletarian theater and led and led the new theater thereafter, passed away between the late 1980s and the late 1990s, and a generational change of the new theater world progressed, making the distinctive features of "new theater" less clear. Future developments will determine whether this is a step toward diversification and enrichment, or a process of self-loss. However, for example, the play reading "These Children's Summer" (directed by Kimura Koichi, 1931-), which began in 1985 and has toured the country every year from July to August, has had a deep impact on a wide range of people.The play is based on the memoirs of a mother and child who experienced the atomic bombing, and the performers are basically new theater actresses, which is probably proof that the good things that "new theater" has cultivated are still alive and well.

One of the major problems that modern shingeki still faces is the appearance of shingeki performers and shingeki companies in commercial theaters, movies, and broadcasts (especially television), raising questions about how to integrate shingeki activities with theater company activities in a progressive manner, and what shingeki's role is in a so-called mass media society. In any case, despite these various problems, the mainstream of shingeki has overcome the framework of the past, when "shingeki" was solely dependent on urban intellectuals, and can be said to have come to occupy a major position in the whole of modern Japanese theater.

[Shoji Sobue August 21, 2018]

"A New Japanese Drama History, Volumes 1 and 2, by Akiba Taro (1955, 1956, Risosha)" ▽ "Materials on the History of New Drama in the Meiji and Taisho Eras, by Tanaka Eizo (1964, Engeki Shuppansha)" ▽ "A New Japanese Drama History, by Matsumoto Katsuhira (1966, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "New Drama Chronicle, 3 volumes, by Kurabayashi Seiichiro (1966-1972, Hakusuisha)" ▽ "New Drama: Its Stage and History, by Sugai Yukio (1967, Kyuryudo)" ▽ "A Short History of New Japanese Drama, by Ibaraki Ken, Revised Edition (1973, Miraisha)" ▽ "A Socialist Japanese Drama History, by Matsumoto Katsuhira (1975, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "The Development of Modern Drama, by Kawatake Toshio (1982, NHK Publishing)" ▽ "History of Modern Japanese Theatre" by Yoshio Ozasa, 8 volumes (1985-2001, Hakusuisha)" ▽ "History of the Concept of New Japanese Theatre" by Manatsuo Kobitsu, 3 volumes (1988-2001, Miraisha)" ▽ "Mountains of New Theatre" by Katsuhira Matsumoto (1991, Asahi Shorin)" ▽ "History of New Kansai Theatre" by Kinji Ooka (1991, Toho Publishing)" ▽ "Lectures on Japanese Theatre" edited by Haruo Suwa et al., 8 volumes (1992-1998, Benseisha)" ▽ "New Theatre" by Masao Shimomura (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "The Birth of New Theatre" by Hideji Ishizawa (Kinokuniya Shinsho)" ▽ "The Story of New Theatre" by Naoya Uchimura (Shakai Shisosha, Gendai Kyoyo Bunko)" ▽ "History of New Theatre" by Yukio Sugai (Shin Nihon Shuppansha)" ▽ "Contemporary Japanese Theatre by Akihiko Ogita (Iwanami Shinsho)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日本において明治以降に展開された新しい演劇ジャンルの一つで、それ以前の能・狂言、歌舞伎(かぶき)などの伝統演劇をさす「旧劇」に対する呼称として、日本の近代・現代演劇運動とほぼ同義に用いられる。なお「新劇」の用語が一般に登場したのは、1913年（大正2）『朝日新聞』の劇評からである。

　新劇は内容的には、小説・詩と並ぶ文学ジャンルである戯曲（ドラマ）を土台にして、その指示する内容全体を俳優を中心とする集団の協力（アンサンブル）によって表現する芸術的な演劇形式ということができる。すなわちヨーロッパの市民社会で成長した近代戯曲上演の日本版であるが、より狭義には19世紀末にヨーロッパに誕生した近代劇運動の日本版である。また、人気俳優を際だたせようとする娯楽的なウェルメイド・プレイ（うまくつくられた芝居）による商業的・営利的な上演傾向に対するものとして、劇団の理念によって統一された舞台表現を志向する小劇場運動である。したがって新劇は、「型」の伝承を重視する日本の伝統演劇にはなかった演出家の存在を不可欠なものとし、その芸術的な指導のもとに上演戯曲の解釈や舞台表現の様式・方法の統一を期するのが普通である。なお新派劇や新国劇などは「旧劇」ではないが、大衆的・娯楽的な脚本のもとに特定俳優の芸を優先させる点で、むしろ「旧劇」の系譜に連なるものと考えられるし、また興行資本を背景にもっぱらスター俳優の魅力や技芸を前面に押し出す大劇場での現代劇なども、新劇のカテゴリーには含めない。しかし今日では、社会の変化と多様化を反映して新劇も少なからず変貌(へんぼう)してきており、かつての商業演劇対新劇の図式はやや薄れつつある。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

前史

一般に新劇の歴史は1906年（明治39）の文芸協会の設立に始まるとされるが、それ以前にもいくつかの試行錯誤を含む演劇の近代化の動きがあった。明治維新後、伝統的な歌舞伎(かぶき)の世界でも、当時の新風俗を登場させた散切(ざんぎり)物や、時代狂言（歴史劇）の荒唐無稽(こうとうむけい)さを否定して史実を強調した活歴(かつれき)が出現し、また従来の座付作者と異なる福地桜痴(おうち)のような局外作者も活躍した。

　こうして「新劇」への可能性をはらみつつ、歌舞伎の改良・近代化へと収斂(しゅうれん)していく動向が展開され、その一つとして坪内逍遙(しょうよう)の史劇論「我が国(くに)の史劇」（1893～1894）と、その実践としての史劇『桐一葉(きりひとは)』（1894～1895）がまず現れた。これらは本来文学（小説）における『小説神髄』と『当世書生気質(かたぎ)』の試みに対応するものであったが、小説の場合とは異なり、歌舞伎の前近代性は全否定されず、時代狂言の部分的改良にとどまった。他方、北村透谷(とうこく)は戯曲『蓬莱曲(ほうらいきょく)』（1891）において歌舞伎からまったく離れた世界を構築したが、その台詞(せりふ)は完全に文語調であった。

　さらに1888年（明治21）自由党の壮士角藤定憲(すどうさだのり)らが「日本改良演劇」と銘打って旗揚げした壮士芝居の流れは、当初は社会変革と演劇創造の統一という意味をはらみ画期的であったが、演技の面では技術的基礎をもたず、またここから育った新派劇も、技術的には成熟したが逆に思想的側面を欠落させ、歌舞伎の変種の性格を強めていった。この意味で、新劇の開拓者小山内薫(おさないかおる)が運動の出発にあたって述べた「歌舞伎劇に非(あら)ず新派劇にも非ざる『或(ある)新しい演劇』」ということばは、「新劇」の意義と方向を自ら規定したものといえよう。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

文芸協会と自由劇場

文芸協会は当初、東京専門学校（早稲田(わせだ)大学の前身）を背景に島村抱月(ほうげつ)が発企し、文芸全般の運動を目ざして1906年（明治39）に発会式を行い、同年秋の演芸部大会で『ヴェニスの商人』『桐一葉』などを部分的に上演した。ついで1909年坪内逍遙が前面に出て、自邸内に協会付属の演劇研究所を設立し、女優を含む俳優養成から始める画期的な演劇活動を開始した。ただ逍遙の演劇理念は、狭義の近代劇運動の推進だけではなく、歌舞伎劇改良の一面をもっていた。この研究所一期生の女優松井須磨子(すまこ)らによる『ハムレット』『人形の家』などの上演は、技術面には問題はあったにせよ、従来にない新しい舞台によって話題をよんだ。

　他方、小山内薫が革新的な歌舞伎俳優2世市川左団次と組み、1909年にイプセンの『ジョン・ガブリエル・ボルクマン』で旗揚げした自由劇場は、その名が示すようにヨーロッパでの一連の自由劇場運動（近代劇運動）を推進しようとしたものであった。この劇団はヨーロッパ近代戯曲の紹介を活動の柱とし、森鴎外(おうがい)をはじめ島崎藤村(とうそん)、田山花袋(かたい)ら「イプセン会」に集まった自然主義文学者の強い支持を得た。日本における近代小説の嚆矢(こうし)『浮雲』の出現に遅れることほぼ20年である。ただ左団次一門には女方(おんながた)しか存在せず、近代演出術も手探りの状態であったため、「旧劇」風の演技は払拭(ふっしょく)できなかった。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

新劇団の興亡と大正戯曲時代

自由劇場は10年続いたが、左団次一門の歌舞伎出演のためしだいに先細りになり、1919年（大正8）第9回公演を最後に解散した。文芸協会も抱月・須磨子らの脱退によって1913年に分裂し、抱月・須磨子らの芸術座と、旧協会員らによる無名会、舞台協会が設立された。これ以外にも大正期には、上山草人(かみやまそうじん)らの近代劇協会、伊庭孝(いばたかし)らの新劇社、村田実らの踏路(とうろ)社、畑中蓼坡(りょうは)（1877―1959）らの新劇協会など、多くの新劇団が生まれ、かつ消え、あわただしい推移の様相を示した。さらにこれらに呼応して、武者小路実篤(むしゃのこうじさねあつ)、木下杢太郎(もくたろう)、吉井勇、有島武郎(たけお)、里見弴(とん)、中村吉蔵、長田(ながた)秀雄、正宗白鳥(まさむねはくちょう)、菊池寛、久米(くめ)正雄、秋田雨雀(うじゃく)ら、流派や傾向を超える文学者たちが近代戯曲の創作に乗り出し、こうして「大正戯曲時代」とよばれる劇文学繁栄の時期が形成されていった。

　この期を代表する芸術座は大衆化の道を歩み、とくに1914年に上演した『復活』（トルストイ原作）は、劇中で須磨子の歌う「カチューシャの唄(うた)」（中山晋平(しんぺい)作曲）によって一世を風靡(ふうび)した。このような通俗化の要素をはらむ新劇の大衆化・職業化の問題は、今日なお新劇界が直面している大きな問題である。しかし抱月は半面では、小劇場の牛込芸術倶楽部(くらぶ)を付設してトルストイの『闇(やみ)の力』などの近代戯曲を試演するなど、「二元の道」を通しての新劇の将来を遠望していたが、その緒についたばかりで急死し、その後を追って須磨子が自殺、芸術座は1919年その幕を閉じた。この期の新劇団の演目やそれに呼応する大正の戯曲作品のすべてが、十分に近代演劇（新劇）としてのドラマか、それとも歌舞伎や新派の革新的な俳優の近代化の試みにこそむしろふさわしいものか、画然とした境界線を引くことはきわめてむずかしい。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

築地小劇場

築地(つきじ)小劇場は、ヨーロッパ遊学中に関東大震災の報に接し帰国した土方与志(ひじかたよし)が、師の小山内薫を擁し、私財を投じて建設した日本最初の本格的な近代劇場であり、1924年（大正13）6月に開場した。これは「演劇の実験室」「演（新）劇の常設館」「民衆の見世物小屋」のスローガンを掲げた日本最初の「非商業主義的」「理想的な小劇場」の誕生であり、日本演劇史上画期的な事件であった。ただヨーロッパでは世紀末に誕生したものが、日本では20世紀も四半世紀過ぎて誕生したのであり、この問題性は第1回公演の演目に、チェーホフの『白鳥の歌』、マゾーの『休みの日』、ゲーリングの『海戦』の3本が選ばれたことにも表れていた。発足時、小山内は彼なりの厳しい演劇理念から日本の戯曲には演出意欲をそそられないと発言して、山本有三、岸田国士(くにお)らの反発を引き起こした。しかし2年後には坪内逍遙の『役(えん)の行者(ぎょうじゃ)』を取り上げ、以後も武者小路、秋田、北村小松（1901―1964）、藤森成吉(ふじもりせいきち)らの計27作品の日本の戯曲を上演したが、小山内の死によって劇団の内部対立が表面化し、1929年（昭和4）劇団築地小劇場と新築地劇団の二つに分裂した。

　築地小劇場の5年間にわたる活動の特徴と功績は、約90作品に及ぶヨーロッパの近代戯曲の多様な上演にあり、当初に掲げた「常設館」の基盤のうえにたつ「実験室」の役割を十二分に果たしたといえる。また、これを支えた舞台美術、照明、衣装、効果など裏方陣の研鑽(けんさん)の功も見逃せず、これらや演出の仕事が演劇創造に不可欠の専門的な芸術分野として広く認められるようになったのは、この小劇場の実験を通してである。山本安英(やすえ)、千田是也(これや)、田村秋子、杉村春子、滝沢修(おさむ)、東山千栄子(ちえこ)らの俳優もここから巣立った。築地小劇場は、いわば今日の新劇の、とくにその技術面における直接の源泉であった。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

プロレタリア演劇運動

築地小劇場と並行して、1920年（大正9）ごろから労働者階級の成長を反映して、社会変革と演劇創造の統一を志向するプロレタリア演劇運動が展開され始めた。その本格的な活動は1926年結成の前衛座の活動からで、その後身の東京左翼劇場が中心になり、1929年（昭和4）には全国組織日本プロレタリア劇場同盟（後の日本プロレタリア演劇同盟。ともにプロットと略称）が結成された。これらの活動の中心になったのは佐々木孝丸(たかまる)（1898―1986）、村山知義(ともよし)、佐野碩(せき)らで、村山の『暴力団記』（1929）などの優れた作品を生んだ。土方与志らの新築地劇団もプロットに加盟して活躍し、『西部戦線異状なし』（レマルク原作）などで労働者・知識人の間に浸透したが、当局の弾圧のため1934年プロットは解体した。この運動は新しい民衆的な観客層を生み出し、革命的な主題をもつ戯曲の創造、演劇の理論的探求、検閲制度との闘争など、未熟さからくるいくつかの誤謬(ごびゅう)はあったにせよ、その思想的・精神的遺産は今日にまで引き継がれている。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

新協・新築地劇団と築地座

プロット解体の1934年（昭和9）、村山知義の「新劇団大同団結の提唱」により、旧左翼劇場を主体に新協劇団が結成され、新築地劇団との並立時代を迎えた。これらは1940年8月に当局より「自発的解散」の表明を余儀なくされるまで、進歩的かつ良心的で水準の高い公演活動を持続し、第二次世界大戦前の新劇の頂点をつくりあげた。築地小劇場で培った技術とプロットが播(ま)いた思想とが、プロット挫折(ざせつ)の経験の反省のもとに交配され、一つの成熟を生んだといえる。久保栄(さかえ)の『火山灰地』二部作（1937～1938）を筆頭に、久板(ひさいた)栄二郎、三好(みよし)十郎、伊藤貞助(ていすけ)（1901―1947）、村山知義などの戯曲（脚色を含む）のほか、プロット時代では機械的な階級史観のため無視されていたヨーロッパの古典遺産（シェークスピア、ゲーテ、シラーなど）が再認識され、また演劇におけるリアリズムの問題が理論的・実践的に探求された。

　一方、築地小劇場発足時の同人の一人であった友田恭助(きょうすけ)は妻の田村秋子とともに、小山内と対立した岸田国士、久保田万太郎らを顧問に1932年築地座を結成し、非政治的・芸術的演劇の旗印のもとに活動を始めた。岸田門下の田中千禾夫(ちかお)、小山祐士(こやまゆうし)らの新進劇作家も同年『劇作』を創刊してこれに呼応し、ここから田中の『おふくろ』（1933）、小山の『瀬戸内海の子供ら』（1934）などの作品が生まれた。

　築地座の理念は分裂・解散後も1937年創立の文学座に引き継がれ、反新協・新築地の線を強めていき、その後友田の戦死、田村の引退などによって力をそがれたが、杉村春子らによって、久保田、岸田、真船豊(まふねゆたか)、飯沢匡(ただす)らの創作劇を中心に活動を続けた。

　新協・新築地解散後は、検挙・出獄に続く困難な状勢のなかで、旧劇団員は戦時体制下に許された移動演劇隊に参加するなど、その対応は多様であった。それらのなかで千田是也は1944年（昭和19）新協・新築地の枠を超えた俳優たちを結集して俳優座を設立し、他方では丸山定夫(さだお)のように移動公演中、原爆のため広島で落命した犠牲者もいた。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

戦後から1960年代まで

1945年（昭和20）12月の新劇合同公演『桜の園』（チェーホフ作）で幕を開けた第二次世界大戦後の新劇は、中絶させられた戦前の新劇団の単なる復活ではなかった。俳優座を主宰する千田是也は、新劇史への反省を踏まえて「演劇（演技・俳優）アカデミズム」「近代俳優術」の確立による再出発を提唱し、日本の近代戯曲の実験的上演、喜劇に力点を置くヨーロッパの古典劇・近代古典劇の上演に力を注いだ。俳優座劇場の建設（1954）、付属の俳優養成所（桐朋(とうほう)学園芸術短期大学演劇専攻の前身）の開設（1949）などもこの活動の一環であり、後者からは若い演技陣が既成劇団に参加したほか、新たに劇団仲間、新人会、三期会（現在の東京演劇アンサンブル）、青年座などの劇団を結成して、新劇界の新しい勢力となった。一方、村山知義は戦後まもなく新協劇団（第二次）を再建したが、日本共産党の内部対立（「50年問題」）の影響などもあって先細りになり、1959年（昭和34）東京芸術座として再発足した。また久保栄も滝沢修（旧新協）、薄田(すすきだ)研二（旧新築地）と組んで敗戦直後に東京芸術劇場を結成したが、政治と演劇の統一の面で問題を抱えて解散した。滝沢、宇野重吉(じゅうきち)（旧新協）らの民衆芸術劇場（第一次民芸）も同じ問題で解散し、1950年（昭和25）新たに劇団民芸として再出発し、リアリズム路線を目ざした。他方、森本薫(かおる)の『女の一生』（杉村春子主演）などで戦中を切り抜けた文学座は、基本的には戦前からの方向を受け継ぎ、非政治的・芸術的戯曲を上演した。しかし、昭和10年代には進歩的な新築地劇団だけがリアリズムの観点からシェークスピアを上演したのに比し、戦後はそういう傾向と対抗した文学座（福田恆存(つねあり)演出）のシェークスピアも出現し、新劇史の歯車が1回転し、戦後段階を画していることを物語っている。

　この三ないし四大劇団と中・小劇団という劇団配置の構図は、戦後の新劇人が結集した1960年の安保条約阻止新劇人会議（のち安保体制打破新劇人会議）以降も大枠においては変わらず、戦前新劇の担い手たちが新劇界の主流を占めた。この1960年以降の舞台では、『火山灰地』の連続上演や、木下順二作・宇野重吉演出の『オットーと呼ばれる日本人』（1962）などの新作上演で劇団民芸がとくに優れた成果をあげた。

　総じて戦後は作家では木下順二のほかに加藤道夫、椎名麟三(しいなりんぞう)、田中澄江、福田恆存、安部公房(あべこうぼう)、三島由紀夫(ゆきお)、秋元松代、福田善之(よしゆき)らが戦前派と並んで活躍し、また「戦後改革」の高揚を受けた自立演劇（職場演劇）からも大橋喜一（1917―2012）、宮本研(けん)らが現れた。また戦後新劇の目覚ましい成果として全国組織の勤労者・市民などの観客団体（いわゆる労演）があり、新劇の観客層の開拓を通して劇団の公演収入を維持した功績は大きい。なお終戦直後のスタニスラフスキー・システムの紹介に続いて、ブレヒトの叙事演劇、サルトルの実存主義演劇、ベケットらの不条理演劇など、外国の演劇界の動向にも関心が集まり、論議の対象となった。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

現況

こうして1960年代前半にかけて新劇の再編成がほぼ完了したが、1960年代後半に入るころから自然主義的な方法への疑問からリアリズムの基調が後退し、非合理的な劇空間・時間を駆使した新しい戯曲・舞台が目だつようになった。さらに1960年代後半から始まった「アンダーグラウンド・シアター」（いわゆるアングラ演劇）とよばれる小劇場運動が広がりをみせ、戯曲至上主義の否定、俳優の肉体の復権を旗印に、若い世代の支持を得て新劇界の一角を形成した。状況劇場、早稲田(わせだ)小劇場（のちSCOT(スコット)）、アンダーグラウンド自由劇場（のち68／71）、天井桟敷(さじき)、現代人劇場（のち桜社）などで、寺山修司、清水邦夫(くにお)、別役実(べつやくみのる)、唐十郎(からじゅうろう)、鈴木忠志(ただし)（1939―　）、佐藤信(まこと)（1943―　）、斎藤憐(れん)（1940―2011）、蜷川幸雄(にながわゆきお)らの作家・演出家が活躍。彼らは「大学解体」を叫び、内には暴力活動を抱えた、この期の学生運動に代表される既成秩序を全否定する社会的風潮と通底し、伝統演劇との絶縁から出発した「新劇」がもはや既成秩序の補完物と化しているとみて、その根底にあった近代劇の理念、ひいては近代そのものを全否定しようという演劇姿勢を示した。こういう演劇現象を「新劇」のカテゴリーに入れていいかどうかという問題がある。ただ、小劇場演劇の「第一世代」とよばれるようになった彼らは、たとえば自由劇場を結成した佐藤信、斎藤憐たちが俳優座養成所出身であったように、「新劇」から生まれ、それへの対抗意識から出発した。

　それにもかかわらず、彼らを支えたのが、既成の新劇がとらええなかった新しい観客層であったところに断絶的な違いがあった。日本経済の「高度成長」に伴い、社会の都市化が異常に進み、若者たちが多く大都会へ集まってきた。見知らぬ市民相互の連帯がほとんど形成されないために味わわざるをえない群衆のなかの孤独。進学率が急速に伸びたため大学へ入っても高い社会的地位や収入が保証されない未来への不安・焦燥、それらを押しつける正体不明の社会への漠とした反抗・批判。こういう新しい若者たちの心情・心性を小劇場演劇の舞台表現は代弁し、呼応し合った。だから、論理よりも情念を優先し、身体表現を前面に押し出す主観的な小劇場演劇の舞台は、一面では集まってきた若者たちの共感を熱狂的に呼び起こしたが、まさにそれゆえに、彼らだけで納得し合うひとりよがりに陥る可能性も大きく、しかもより普遍的な演劇のことばと論理をつくりだす志向を最初から拒否するという問題を抱えていた。その結果、学生運動の崩壊と見合って小劇場演劇の衝撃力も衰えた。そのかわりに、一つの風俗現象としては認知され、演劇界ひいては社会の秩序のなかに相応の位置を占めるに至る（小劇場出身の俳優が演技力のあるテレビ俳優として活躍している例は数多くあり、拒否したうわさは伝わってこない）。1973年の「石油ショック」に凝縮された日本経済の転機が、この旋回の動きの背景にあったろう。新劇団青俳から脱退し、岡田英次（1920―1995）らと現代人劇場を結成した蜷川幸雄が、清水邦夫と組んだ桜社の活動のあと、1974年に興行資本東宝に迎えられ大劇場の日生劇場で近代の古典と位置づけてよい『ロミオとジュリエット』を演出したのは、その象徴的な現象である。

　これを追いかけるように、『熱海殺人事件』（1973）によって華々しく登場したつかこうへいを先頭に、いわば「第二世代」の活躍が始まる（時の流れとともに、当然「第三世代」「第四世代」も登場する）。「第一世代」との違いを際だたせると、ナンセンスやパロディーの笑い、ことば遊び（言語遊戯）の面白さなどを押し出す舞台表現、つまり喜劇といえよう。ただ、観客や俳優と密着した、そのときどきの即興性を重視した流動する上演台本による舞台は、定着した文学作品としての戯曲の世界を表現しようとする近代劇の理念とは完全に切れている。むろんこれはこの国の現代演劇の一翼を担っていて、しかもこういう小劇場演劇出身の劇作家の作品を、既成の新劇団が上演することも珍しいことではない（そもそも、つかの『熱海殺人事件』そのものが雑誌『新劇』に発表され、初演は文学座アトリエ公演であった）。つまり「新劇」を軸とした現代日本演劇の流動化・多様化・重層化と押さえることも許されよう。しかし、仲間うちだけの一過性的な流行現象ではない現代日本の演劇の豊饒化(ほうじょうか)のためには、客観的・普遍的な力をもつ戯曲の創出が大前提で、「新劇」ひいては近代劇の遺産の積極的・批判的な継承は、なお現代日本演劇の課題の一つといわざるをえない。

　こういう推移のなかで、たとえば『夕鶴(ゆうづる)』（木下順二作）上演1000回に達した山本安英の仕事などは、戦後新劇の達成した一つの象徴的な事例といえよう。ただ、山本安英たち新劇の第一世代、つまり築地小劇場とプロレタリア演劇でその演劇的基盤を培い、その後の新劇を担い、導いてきた山本、千田是也、滝沢修、杉村春子、宇野重吉といった劇場人たちも1980年代後半から1990年代後半にかけて逝去し、新劇界の世代交替が進み、「新劇」の目鼻だちがはっきりしなくなった。それが多様化・豊饒化の一階梯(かいてい)なのか、それとも自己喪失の過程なのか、今後の展開によって決まってくることだろう。しかし、たとえば1985年に始まり、毎年7月から8月にかけて全国を巡演し広汎(こうはん)な人々に深い衝撃を与えている朗読劇、原爆体験をした母と子の手記を編集した『この子たちの夏』（演出木村光一、1931―　）に出演しているのは、基本的には新劇女優たちであり、「新劇」が培ってきた、よきなにものかが生きていることの証左であろう。

　なお今日の新劇が依然として抱えている大きな問題の一つに、新劇人・新劇団の商業劇場や映画・放送（とくにテレビ）出演があり、劇団活動とどう発展的に統一させるか、いわゆるマスコミ社会での新劇のあり方が問われている。いずれにしても、これらの諸問題を内にはらみながらも新劇の本流は、もはや都市の知識人層にのみ依拠したかつての「新劇」の枠を乗り越え、現代の日本演劇全体のなかに一つの大きな位置を占めるに至ったといえよう。

［祖父江昭二　2018年8月21日］

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