Azuma-Toyotomi government

Japanese: 織豊政権 - しょくほうせいけん

In the second half of the 16th century, Oda Nobunaga brought an end to the century-long civil war, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who succeeded him, achieved national unification, creating the unifying power of the early modern period. Although it was a short period of just over 30 years, it was an extremely important and epoch-making period in Japanese history, and as such, this period is divided into a single period known as the Azuchi-Momoyama period, or the Azuchi-Momoyama period.

This was a period of dramatic ups and downs when the framework of early modern feudal society (the feudal domain society) was formed, and it is considered to be a turning point that marked a major step from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern period, but the understanding and evaluation of the historical significance of this regime is not necessarily uniform. In the period division of world history, the Middle Ages are feudal society, and the Early Modern period (or modern period) is capitalist society, and in the transition process, a monetary economy spread, local markets and free cities developed, and feudal land rent began to take the form of money rent. Although this phenomenon certainly appeared in 16th century Japan, during the process of the establishment of the Azuchi-Toyotomi regime and the start of the Edo shogunate, cities that resembled free cities, such as Sakai, were suppressed and reorganized, the rent system was changed from the kandaka system to the kokudaka system, and the principle of money rent was reversed to product rent. How to understand this phenomenon is related to the evaluation of this regime.

There are various theories, but first of all, the views are divided on whether the preceding Middle Ages (Kamakura and Muromachi periods) are considered to be feudal society or not. From the viewpoint that the Middle Ages was a feudal society like the early modern period, there are (1) the "feudal reorganization theory" represented by Nakamura Kichiji, (2) the "pure feudalism theory" represented by Fujita Goro, and (3) the "early absolutism theory" represented by Hattori Shiso. In contrast, from the viewpoint that the Middle Ages was a slave society, there is (4) the "feudalism establishment theory" represented by Araki Moriaki. (1) is that the development and disintegration of medieval feudal society was prevented, and it was reorganized into the early modern feudal system of the shogunate and feudal domain system. (2) considers medieval society to be the era of the classical manor system, which was based on the principle of extracting labor rent from serfs, and then in early modern society, a purified feudal system (slave-farming system) was established, which extracted product rent from small peasant management. (3) argues that the struggles of the people, as represented by the Tsuchiikki and Ikko Ikki uprisings, and the overseas development seen from the Wako pirates to the red seal ship trade, are comparable to the peasant wars and the Age of Discovery in Western Europe, and have an early absolutist character. (4) considers medieval society to be a slave society based on patriarchal slave management, and early modern society to be the general establishment of a serf society based on the establishment of small peasant management, and that it was Hideyoshi's top-down policy of the Taiko survey and the feudal revolution that structurally established this process of progress. There is also the view that it is inappropriate to view the Oda and Toyotomi governments as a continuous development and to generalize them under the names of the Azuchi-Momoyama period and the Oda-Toyotomi period, and that the issue of continuity and discontinuity is an issue. The discontinuity theory holds that the Hideyoshi stage is early modern, while the Nobunaga stage is medieval, and that there is a large difference in stage between the Oda and Toyotomi governments, and that the former should basically be considered part of the Sengoku period.

In terms of time division, it would be appropriate to divide the Azuchi-Momoyama period from 1568 (Eiroku 11), when Nobunaga came to Kyoto from Gifu with Ashikaga Yoshiaki as his support, to 1603 (Keicho 8), when the Edo Shogunate was established and the Tokugawa clan's hegemony in both name and reality was established. Then, it would be appropriate to divide the period into the following four periods:

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Early Oda administration

From Nobunaga's entry into Kyoto in 1568 (Eiroku 11) to the exile of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto in 1573 (Tensho 1), which resulted in the downfall of the Muromachi Shogunate. This period can be considered a time of dual power between the Shogunate and the Oda clan. With Yoshiaki's proclamation as Shogun, the functions of the Muromachi Shogunate were officially restored, but Nobunaga's intention was to use Yoshiaki to establish his own system of rule. The fact that Nobunaga declined when Yoshiaki encouraged him to become either Vice Shogun or Kanrei, that he declined any official position from the Imperial Court, and that he refused Yoshiaki's offer to give him fiefs in the Kinai region as he wished, and instead appointed deputies in Sakai in Izumi, and Otsu and Kusatsu in Omi, all show that Nobunaga wanted to avoid entering into a lord-vassal relationship with Yoshiaki or being ranked lower in the official ranking system, and they also indicate that Nobunaga was trying to gain control of the advanced regions of the Kinai region and solidify his own power base.

In January 1569, the year after he went to Kyoto, Nobunaga established the "Denchu Okite" (Rules of the Palace), restricting the actions of Shogun Yoshiaki, and in January 1570, he presented Yoshiaki with a three-article "Article," forcing him to delegate the power of the Shogun to Nobunaga. He also issued a "Notice" to the various daimyo to go to Kyoto to pay tribute to the Imperial Court and the Shogunate for repairs to the Imperial Palace, business for the samurai, and peace in the world, demonstrating the position and strength of Nobunaga's power. Then, under the pretext that failure to follow the order to go to Kyoto would be disobeying the orders of the Imperial Court and the Shogun, he carried out operations such as the subjugation of the Asakura clan of Echizen, attacking the Azai clan of Omi who sided with them, attacking the Ikko Ikki rebels, and burning down Enryakuji Temple on Mount Hiei. In September 1572 (Genki 3), he presented a 17-point "dissenting opinion" to Shogun Yoshiaki, who was pulling the strings behind the scenes of the anti-Nobunaga forces, and thoroughly criticized him, leading to a steady deterioration in the relationship between the two. Eventually, Yoshiaki openly took hostile action against Nobunaga, so in 1573, Nobunaga attacked Yoshiaki at Makishima Castle in Uji, exiling him to Wakae in Kawachi, and dealt the final blow to the Muromachi Shogunate.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Later period of the Oda administration

From 1573 (Tensho 1) to 1582, when Nobunaga was killed violently in the Honnoji Incident. This was the period when he became a unified power in both name and reality. Aiming to conquer the whole country, he destroyed the Asakura clan in Echizen and the Azai clan in Omi, defeated Matsunaga Hisahide and others, and at the same time deepened his power through an all-out confrontation with the Ikko Ikki. In 1574, he attacked the Ikko Ikki in Nagashima, Ise, burning to death 20,000 people, and in the following year, he annihilated the Ikko Ikki in Echizen, massacring the town of Fuchu with the words "There is no room for a single yen." He then attacked Ishiyama Hongan-ji, the base of the Ikki forces, and fought against the Mori clan and others who were connected to the Ikki, defeating them one by one, and in 1580, he surrendered the Hongan-ji to Nobunaga's forces through peacemaking under the imperial decree of Emperor Ogimachi, and thus gained complete control over the Kinai region. He also showed signs of preparing to fight battles both east and west in an attempt to unify the country, and in 82 he destroyed the Takeda clan of Kai. Then, on his way west to face the powerful Mori forces of the western provinces, he was killed by his vassal, Akechi Mitsuhide, at Honnoji Temple, and his government collapsed while still incomplete.

During this time, in 1575, Nobunaga accepted the government posts he had been declining up until then, becoming Gon Dainagon and Ukon'e Taisho, and also handed over the family headship to his eldest son Nobutada, granting him the provinces of Owari and Mino. In the following year, he began construction of Azuchi Castle and moved his base from Gifu to Azuchi, thus concentrating on his work as a unified power. Therefore, in this period, 75 and 80 would become further milestones.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Early Toyotomi Administration

It began in 1582 (Tensho 10), when, immediately after the Honnoji Incident, Hideyoshi defeated his lord's enemy Akechi Mitsuhide in the Battle of Yamazaki, solidifying his position as Nobunaga's successor, and continued until 1591, when he conquered the whole country with the Siege of Odawara and the pacification of Oshu. Another turning point came when Hideyoshi became regent in 1585 and received imperial permission to use the Toyotomi surname, placing him at the top of a class-based society and attempting to promote a unified government by borrowing ancient authority. In 83, Hideyoshi defeated Shibata Katsuie, a senior retainer of the Oda clan, in the Battle of Shizugatake, demonstrating his status as the successor to the Oda clan both at home and abroad. He also built Osaka Castle and established a base from which to advance to other regions. After the Battles of Komaki and Nagakute, Hideyoshi subjugated Tokugawa Ieyasu of Tokai, conquered Shikoku, Kyushu, and Odawara, and achieved national unification. As he expanded his conquests, he dispatched magistrates to carry out land surveys. At first, land surveys were conducted by hand, as in the Oda administration, but as the territory expanded, standards for land surveys were established and surveys were conducted nationwide. In 90 and 91, surveys were conducted in the Kanto, Tohoku, and southern Kyushu regions, and the Tohoku land survey in particular was conducted with a strict punitive policy. The nationwide implementation of the Taiko Land Survey established the principle of the rice yield system, and promoted the separation of soldiers and farmers by issuing the Sword Hunt Order in 1588 and the Social Status Control Order in 1591. This period also saw the implementation of important policies that would lead to the Edo Shogunate's policy of national isolation, such as the Prohibition of Christianity in 1587 and the Anti-Piracy Order in 1588.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Late Toyotomi administration

The period begins in 1591 (Tensho 19), when Hideyoshi unified the country, handed over the position of regent to his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu, and became Taiko himself, and ends in 1603 (Keicho 8), when Hideyoshi died, went through the Battle of Sekigahara, and Tokugawa Ieyasu was proclaimed Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa's hegemony in both name and reality. Among these, there are two further turning points in 1695 (Bunroku 4), when regent Hidetsugu was exiled to Mount Koya and forced to commit suicide, and in 1698 (Keicho 3), when Hideyoshi, the head of the government, died. After Hideyoshi's death, the Toyotomi government was continued by a council of the Five Elders and Five Commissioners, which was established as a political structure to support Hideyoshi's heir, Hideyori, around July 1698, just before Hideyoshi's death, until the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Furthermore, although Ieyasu had effectively established hegemony through his victory in the Battle of Sekigahara, his authority was still an extension of his authority as one of the Toyotomi clan's Five Elders.

This was a time when the contradictions within the government became apparent, and new conflicts arose between the feudal lords in the process of unifying the country, and the failure of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Kanpaku Hidetsugu to differentiate between their functions shook the government to its core, and the implementation and failure of the Korean Expedition (the Bunroku-Keicho War) further exacerbated this. There are various theories about the cause of the Korean Expedition, but it is said that the Toyotomi government was characterized by the fact that the only way to deal with the contradictions within the government was through external aggression.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

"Kitajima Masamoto (ed.), Systematic Japanese History Series 2: Political History II (1965, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "Wakida Osamu et al. (eds.), Symposium on Japanese History 10: Theory of the Azuchi-Momoyama Government (1972, Gakuseisha)" ▽ "Fujiki Hisashi et al. (eds.), Collection of Essays on Japanese History 6: Azuchi-Momoyama Government (1974, Yuseido Publishing)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

16世紀後半、約1世紀にわたった戦国動乱を終息させた織田信長、その後を継いで天下統一を成し遂げた豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉によってつくられた近世統一権力。わずかに30年余りの短い期間であるが、日本の歴史のうえではきわめて重要な画期的な時代にあたり、ためにこの時期を一つの時代区分とし、安土(あづち)桃山時代、あるいは織豊時代という。

　近世封建制社会（幕藩制社会）の骨格が形成されていく劇的な起伏に富んだ時期で、中世から近世へと大きく踏み出した転換期として位置づけられるが、この政権の歴史的意義に対する理解・評価はかならずしも一様ではない。世界史の時代区分では、中世が封建社会、近世（あるいは近代）が資本主義社会、その移行過程では貨幣経済が浸透して地方市場・自由都市が発達し、封建地代も貨幣地代の形態をとるようになっていくのが一般的である。16世紀の日本でも確かにその現象が現れてくるとはいえ、織豊政権の成立、江戸幕府の開始という過程を経るなかで、たとえば堺(さかい)をはじめとする自由都市に近似した都市は弾圧・再編成され、地代形態も貫高(かんだか)制から石高(こくだか)制に規準が切り換えられ、貨幣地代から生産物地代の原則に逆転してしまうという、この現象をどう理解するかが、この政権の評価にかかわってくる。

　諸説があるが、まず先行する中世（鎌倉・室町時代）を封建社会とみなすか否かによって見解が分かれる。中世も近世と同じ封建社会と考える立場からは、(1)中村吉治(きちじ)に代表される「封建制再編成説」、(2)藤田五郎に代表される「純粋封建制説」、(3)服部之総(はっとりしそう)に代表される「初期絶対主義説」があり、これに対して中世を奴隷制社会とみなす見解に、(4)安良城盛昭(あらきもりあき)に代表される「封建制成立説」がある。(1)は、中世の封建社会が発展し解体するのを阻止し、これを幕藩制的な近世の封建制に再編成したというもの。(2)は、中世社会を農奴からの労働地代の搾取を原則とする古典的荘園(しょうえん)制の時代とし、それが近世社会になり小農民経営から生産物地代を搾取する純粋化した封建制（隷農制）が成立したというもの。(3)は、土一揆(つちいっき)・一向(いっこう)一揆に代表される民衆の闘いと、倭寇(わこう)から朱印船貿易にみられる海外発展は、西欧の農民戦争と大航海時代に匹敵し、初期絶対主義的性格をもっているというもの。そして(4)は、中世社会を家父長的奴隷制経営に基づく奴隷制社会とし、近世社会を小規模農民経営の成立に基づく農奴制社会の一般的成立であるとするもので、この前進過程を構造的に定着させたのが、秀吉の太閤(たいこう)検地という上からの政策であり、封建革命であったというものである。また、織田政権と豊臣政権を一貫した発展としてとらえ、織豊政権・安土桃山時代などとよんで一括することは妥当ではないという見解もあり、いわゆる連続・非連続が問題にされている。非連続説とは、秀吉段階は近世的であるが信長段階は中世的であるとし、織田政権と豊臣政権の間には大きな段階差があり、前者は基本的には戦国時代とみるべきであるとする。

　時期区分としては、いちおう安土桃山時代の時代区分を、信長が足利義昭(あしかがよしあき)を擁して岐阜から上洛(じょうらく)した1568年（永禄11）より江戸幕府が開設し名実ともに徳川氏の覇権が確立した1603年（慶長8）とし、次の4期に分けるのが適当であろう。

［橋本政宣］

織田政権前期

1568年（永禄11）の信長入京より、73年（天正1）将軍足利義昭の京都追放＝室町幕府の滅亡まで。この時期は幕府と織田政権の二重権力の時期といえる。義昭の将軍宣下により室町幕府の機能は正式に再興されたが、信長の意図は義昭を利用して独自の支配体制を構築することにあった。信長が義昭から副将軍か管領(かんれい)かに就(つ)くよう勧められたが辞退したということや、朝廷からの官位辞退のこと、あるいは義昭から畿内(きない)において望みしだいに知行(ちぎょう)を与えようとの申し出を断り、かわりに和泉(いずみ)の堺、近江(おうみ)の大津・草津に代官を置いたということなどは、信長が義昭との主従関係に入ることや、官位体系において下位にたつことを避けようとしたことを物語るものであり、信長が畿内先進地域の掌握に努め独自の権力基盤を固めようとしていたことを示していよう。

　上洛した翌年1569年の正月には「殿中掟(でんちゅうおきて)」を定め、信長は将軍義昭の行動に制約を加え、70年正月には義昭に対しては3か条からなる「条書(じょうしょ)」を示して、将軍権力の信長への委任を強要し、諸大名に対しては、禁中の御修理や武家御用のため、天下静謐(せいひつ)のため、上洛して朝廷・幕府に参礼すべき旨の「触書(ふれがき)」を発して、信長権力の位置と威勢を示した。そして上洛命令に従わなければ公武の命に背くという名目のもとに、越前(えちぜん)朝倉氏討伐などを行い、これに味方した近江浅井氏を攻め、一向一揆を攻撃し、比叡山(ひえいざん)延暦寺を焼打ちにした。72年（元亀3）9月には反信長勢力の陰で糸を引く将軍義昭に対し、「異見」17か条を示して徹底的に批判し、両者の関係は悪化の一途をたどる。やがて義昭は公然と信長に敵対行動に出たため、信長は73年宇治(うじ)の槇島(まきしま)城に義昭を攻め、河内(かわち)若江に追放して室町幕府に最後のとどめを刺した。

［橋本政宣］

織田政権後期

1573年（天正1）より、本能寺の変で信長が横死する82年まで。名実ともに統一権力となった時期である。全国制覇を目ざし、越前朝倉氏・近江浅井氏を滅ぼし、松永久秀(ひさひで)などを討つと同時に、一向一揆との全面対決を通じて信長権力の深化を図った。74年の伊勢(いせ)長島の一揆攻略では2万人を焼殺し、翌75年には越前の一向一揆を壊滅し、府中の町は死体で「一円あき所なく候」という皆殺しを行った。さらに一揆勢力の本拠である石山本願寺を攻撃し、これに通じる毛利(もうり)氏などに対戦し、各個撃破を行い、80年には正親町(おおぎまち)天皇の勅命による和平工作によって本願寺を信長の軍門に下らせ、ここに畿内を完全に掌握する。さらに全国統一を目ざして東西に転戦する構えをみせ、82年には甲斐(かい)の武田氏を滅ぼし、ついで西国の雄毛利勢との対戦にあたるべく西下の途上、本能寺で家臣の明智光秀(あけちみつひで)のために殺され、政権は未完成のまま瓦解(がかい)した。

　この間、信長は1575年これまで辞退し続けてきた官職を受け、権大納言(ごんだいなごん)・右近衛(うこのえ)大将となり、また家督を長子信忠(のぶただ)に譲って尾張(おわり)・美濃(みの)の両国を与え、翌年には安土築城に着手して本拠を岐阜より安土に移し、統一権力としての仕事に専念する体制をとる。したがってこの時期においては75年と80年が、さらに一つのくぎりになろう。

［橋本政宣］

豊臣政権前期

本能寺の変の直後、山崎の戦いで主君の仇(あだ)明智光秀を討ち、信長の後継者としての地歩を固めた1582年（天正10）から、小田原征伐、ついで奥州の鎮定により全国制覇を果たした91年まで。このうち85年に秀吉が関白に就任し、また豊臣姓の勅許も得て身分制社会の頂点にたち、古代的権威を借りて統一政権を推進していこうとしたことが、さらに一つのくぎりになる。83年、秀吉は織田家の宿老柴田勝家(しばたかついえ)を賤ヶ岳(しずがたけ)の戦いで滅ぼして織田政権の後継者としての地位を内外に示すとともに、大坂城を築いてここを本拠として各地に進出する体制を固め、さらに小牧(こまき)・長久手(ながくて)の戦いを経て東海の雄徳川家康を臣従させ、四国征伐、九州征伐、小田原征伐を行って全国統一を達成した。そして征服地を拡大するごとに、奉行人(ぶぎょうにん)を派遣して検地を実施した。初めのころは織田政権の段階のように指出(さしだし)検地であったが、領地の拡大につれ検地の規準が整備されて検地が行われ、90、91年には関東・東北・南九州へと全国的になり、とくに東北検地では厳罰主義をもって臨んでいる。この太閤検地の全国的施行により石高制の原則を確立し、88年には刀狩令、91年には身分統制令を出して兵農分離を推進した。またこの時期には、87年のキリシタン禁令、88年の海賊取締令など、江戸幕府の鎖国政策につながる重要な政策も打ち出されている。

［橋本政宣］

豊臣政権後期

秀吉が全国統一を達成して関白の地位を甥(おい)の豊臣秀次(ひでつぐ)に譲り、自らは太閤となった1591年（天正19）から、秀吉の死去、関ヶ原の戦いを経て、徳川家康が将軍宣下を受けて名実ともに徳川氏の覇権が確立した1603年（慶長8）まで。このうち、関白秀次を高野山(こうやさん)に追放し自殺させた95年（文禄4）、政権の主宰者秀吉が死去した98年（慶長3）が、さらに一つのくぎりになる。なお、秀吉死後の豊臣政権は、1600年の関ヶ原の戦いまでは、秀吉死去の直前の98年7月ごろ嗣子(しし)秀頼(ひでより)を推戴(すいたい)する政治的機構として制度的に成立した、五大老・五奉行の合議体制によって継承された。また、関ヶ原の戦いでの勝利により、家康は事実上の覇権を確立したが、その権限は依然豊臣氏の五大老としての権限の延長線上にあったのである。

　この時期は政権の矛盾が顕在化した時期で、全国統一の過程で新たに大名間の対立が生じ、太閤秀吉と関白秀次の機能分化の不首尾は政権を根底から揺るがせ、朝鮮出兵（文禄(ぶんろく)・慶長(けいちょう)の役）の実施・挫折(ざせつ)がこれに拍車をかけた。朝鮮出兵の原因は諸説あるが、このような対外侵略の形でしか政権内部の矛盾を処理する方法がなかったところに、豊臣政権の特質があったともいわれている。

［橋本政宣］

『北島正元編『体系日本史叢書2　政治史Ⅱ』（1965・山川出版社）』▽『脇田修ほか編『シンポジウム日本歴史10　織豊政権論』（1972・学生社）』▽『藤木久志ほか編『論集日本歴史6　織豊政権』（1974・有精堂出版）』

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