Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period

Japanese: 春秋戦国時代 - しゅんじゅうせんごくじだい

A period of change in ancient China from the 8th century BC to the 3rd century BC. The Spring and Autumn Period covers the period from 722 BC to 481 BC, as covered by the chronological records of the Lu state's historians, known as the Spring and Autumn Annals. After this came the Warring States Period, which is usually considered to have begun in 453 BC, when the three powerful aristocrats of the Jin state, Han, Wei, and Zhao, took control, or in 403 BC, when these three were officially recognized as feudal lords. The Warring States Period ended in 221 BC with the unification of the world by the First Emperor of Qin. The Spring and Autumn Period was a time when the city-state system of feudal lords established by the Zhou royal family gradually became unstable and disintegrated, transitioning to a centralized system under the Qin and Han emperors.

[Yoshihiko Ogura]

Political situation

In 770 BCE, the Zhou royal family moved their capital from the Guanzhong region to Luoyi in the east to avoid invasions by the Rong. During this so-called Eastern Zhou period, the feudal lords left the control of the royal family and began to form alliances and wars according to their own desires, and powerful feudal lords emerged who annexed weaker city-states. Representatives in the northern China region were Qi and Lu in Shandong Province, Jin in Shanxi Province, and Qin in Shaanxi Province, but Chu (later Wu and Yue) advanced north from the south, forcing countries such as Song, Zheng, and Wei, which were caught between the powerful nations, into diplomatic difficulties. However, through these wars and diplomatic contacts, a sense developed among these princely states that they were all common Chinese feudal lords (the Xia, Huaxia), and based on this sense of solidarity, "hegemons" such as Duke Huan of Qi, as leaders of the feudal lords, took action to expel the barbarians through "respect for the emperor and expel the barbarians."

Such powerful states had already emerged during the Spring and Autumn period, but within those states clan-like kinship still existed, and the status and power of the state ruler (prince) was restricted by his clan's nobles and great officials. Even when a weak state was destroyed and turned into a "county," the rule of that state was usually entrusted to a powerful great official.

During the Warring States period, the trend of stronger nations annexing weaker nations intensified, and the trend of overthrowing the ruling elite within each nation also grew stronger. For example, the three clans of Han, Wei, and Zhao, who were ministers of Jin, overthrew their lord the Duke of Jin and became feudal lords, and the clan of Tian, a minister of Qi, replaced their lord as ruler of Qi. Thus, the "Seven Warring States," consisting of the above four nations, Qin to the west, Chu to the south, and Yan to the northeast, began to compete with each other for survival.

During the Warring States period, the rulers of various states eventually came to call themselves "kings," and in pursuit of a policy of enriching their nations and strengthening their military, they often recruited people from other states and even commoners, appointing them to high-ranking officials and military commanders. They built great walls on the borders with neighboring states, and established prefectures in the territories they seized to govern them. This was the basis for the prefecture and county system that was perfected during the Qin and Han periods.

Among them, the Qin, based in the Guanzhong Plain in Shaanxi Province, was naturally protected from the eastern countries by the Hangu Pass, and was blessed with agricultural production thanks to the loess region. Furthermore, in the mid-4th century BC, Shang Yang, who came from Wei, implemented drastic reforms, such as changing the land and family systems and awarding titles according to military achievements. The Qin army had a strong fighting spirit and was skilled in diplomatic tactics, so in the 3rd century BC, they steadily advanced east of Hangu Pass and established more counties, and finally destroyed all the eastern countries by the end of the century.

[Yoshihiko Ogura]

Socio-Economic

Iron first came into use towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period, but by the start of the Warring States period, farm tools with iron-tipped blades had begun to be used, and the cultivation method of using oxen to pull plows had also begun, improving agricultural productivity. In addition, flood control and irrigation works were carried out in various countries, increasing the area of arable land.

Domestic transportation, which had developed since the Spring and Autumn period, flourished further during the Warring States period as agricultural and handicraft specialty products increased in each region, and canals were dug connecting the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, resulting in the emergence of large cities where goods were distributed. National capitals such as Linzi in Qi, Handan in Zhao, and Xianyang in Qin also took on the characteristics of such commercial cities. Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period, great merchants who traded long distances appeared, such as Tao Zhugong, who is said to have been transformed into Fan Li, who fled from Yue, and Zigong, a senior disciple of Confucius, but with the start of the Warring States period, merchants who manufactured and sold salt and iron began to accumulate great wealth.

As the exchange economy developed, cities and states began to issue their own coins. Coins made of bronze included the cloth coins shaped like farm tools, the knife-shaped coins, and the round coins with holes, but gold coins were also used in the state of Chu.

During the Warring States period, states tried to strengthen their finances by taxing domestically produced goods and goods imported from other countries, but merchants gradually began to see these border walls as an obstacle. The unification of characters, weights and measures, and the width of carriages, which Qin Shi Huang implemented at the same time as he unified the country, took the trend of domestic commerce development in the Warring States period a step further.

This economic development also brought about changes in the structure of families and villages. Until the Spring and Autumn period, clan ties were still strong, but in the Warring States period, small families of an average of five people began to run independent households. Some of these people acquired vast tracts of land and became powerful clans, with influential families gathering together with their relatives to wield power. However, many people lost their land and homes and became slaves or tenant farmers. In current Chinese academia, the changes from the Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period are seen as a social development from slavery to feudalism.

[Yoshihiko Ogura]

Thought and Culture

During the Spring and Autumn period, learned aristocrats such as Yan Zi of Qi and Zi Chan of Zheng were in charge of national politics, but people of lower ranks also became government officials after acquiring knowledge of the six arts (ritual, music, archery, imperial decree, calligraphy, and mathematics). The academy presided over by Confucius taught and imparted such knowledge to students who had been trained to become "gentlemen," and recommended them to various feudal lords.

During the Warring States period, society changed drastically. While the children of fallen aristocrats fled to other countries, some merchants, industrialists, and farmers rose to prominence through their talents. They campaigned for the Warring States rulers, who were looking for talented people to enrich the country and strengthen its military, and distinguished themselves in their own fields, such as law, military affairs, and diplomacy. Near the Jimen Gate in Linzi, the capital of the Qi state, there was a corner where scholars from all over the country lived and held free discussions, and this was called "the learning of Ji."

The vigorous intellectual activity of the "Hundred Schools of Thought" during this period arose as each person proactively spoke out according to their own beliefs about how to achieve unity and order in China amid political and social turmoil. Confucius sought to spread the virtue of "filial piety" within the family to society as a whole and restore the spirit of "ritual" from the Zhou dynasty, but Mencius, who succeeded him in the mid-Warring States period, governed with a spirit of "benevolence and righteousness" and made stabilizing the lives of peasants the basis of kingly politics, while Xunzi at the end of the Warring States period preached the establishment of order through "ritual" established by the monarch.

In contrast to the Confucians, Mozi opposed the distinction between one's own country and other countries, and between one's family and other families, and also opposed wars and extravagances based on the sovereign's self-interest, becoming the founder of the Mohist school. Legalists such as Shang Yang and Han Fei focused on allowing the sovereign to use laws and regulations to manipulate the bureaucrats and people as he wished, and to achieve the goal of enriching the country and strengthening its military.

On the other hand, Taoists such as Laozi and Zhuangzi also appeared, who criticized the artificial efforts of Confucianism and Legalism as the very cause of chaotic times, and preached abandoning morality and knowledge and returning to "nature" (Tao).

With the establishment of the unified empire of the Qin and Han dynasties, ideological activity of these "hundred schools of thought" came under strict ideological control, and only Confucianism, which reveres Confucius, survived as orthodox ideology. However, the academic fields of astronomy, geography, agriculture, medicine, mathematics, and other subjects that developed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods continued to flourish afterwards in response to real-world needs.

[Yoshihiko Ogura]

"Yoshihiko Ogura et al., 'Oriental History of the Cultured, Vol. 1' (Shakai Shisosha, Modern Culture Library)" ▽ "Yoshihiko Ogura, 'Research on Ancient Chinese Political Thought' (1970, Aoki Shoten)" ▽ "Shigeki Kaizuka et al., 'The History of China 1: From the Primitive Period to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period' (1974, Kodansha)"

[Reference items] | Moroshi Hundred Schools | Chinese History

Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period (Countries and Major Transportation Routes)
©Shogakukan ">

Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period (Countries and Major Transportation Routes)

Table of the rise and fall of various nations during the Spring and Autumn Warring States period
©Shogakukan ">

Table of the rise and fall of various nations during the Spring and Autumn Warring States period

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

紀元前8世紀から前3世紀にかけての古代中国の変動期。春秋時代とは、『春秋』と名づけられる魯(ろ)国の史官の編年体の記録が扱っている前722年から前481年までをいう。そのあと戦国時代になるわけだが、普通には、晋(しん)国の有力貴族だった韓(かん)、魏(ぎ)、趙(ちょう)3氏が実権を握った前453年、あるいはこの3氏が正式に諸侯として承認された前403年をもって画期としている。その戦国時代は前221年の秦(しん)の始皇帝による天下統一とともに終わる。春秋戦国時代は、周の王室によって封建された諸侯の都市国家体制が、しだいに動揺、解体して、秦・漢の皇帝のもとでの中央集権体制へと移行してゆく時期にあたる。

［小倉芳彦］

政治状況

前770年に周の王室は犬戎(けんじゅう)の侵入を避けて、都を関中(かんちゅう)地方から東方の洛邑(らくゆう)に移した。このいわゆる東周時代に入ってから、諸侯は王室の統制を離れて、各自の思惑しだいで同盟や戦争を繰り返すようになり、弱小の都市国家を併合した有力諸侯が出現した。山東省の斉(せい)や魯、山西省の晋、陝西(せんせい)省の秦などが華北地域での代表だが、それに対して南方から楚(そ)（のちには呉(ご)、越(えつ)も）が北進してきたために、強国の間に挟まれた宋(そう)、鄭(てい)、衛(えい)などの諸国は外交上の苦心を迫られた。しかしこうした戦争や外交による接触を通じて、これら諸侯国の間には、自分たちは共通の中華諸侯（諸夏、華夏）であるという意識が生じ、その連帯意識のもとで、斉の桓公(かんこう)などの「覇者(はしゃ)」が諸侯のリーダーとして、夷狄(いてき)を排する「尊王攘夷(そんのうじょうい)」行動を起こしたりした。

　春秋時代にはすでにこのような強国が出現していたが、その国家の内部には依然として氏族的な血縁主義が生きており、国君（公(きみ)）の地位と権力は同族の卿(けい)、大夫(たいふ)に制約されていた。弱小国を滅ぼして「県(けん)」とした場合でも、その県の支配は有力な大夫にゆだねられるのが普通であった。

　戦国時代になると、強国による弱小国併呑(へいどん)の趨勢(すうせい)はいっそう激化し、そればかりでなく、一国内での「下剋上(げこくじょう)」の風潮も高まってきた。晋の卿だった韓、魏、趙3氏が、主君の晋公を倒して諸侯となり、斉の卿の田(でん)氏が主君にかわって斉の国君となったのはその例である。こうして以上の4国に、西方の秦、南方の楚、北東方の燕(えん)を加えた「戦国の七雄」が、存亡をかけて互いにしのぎを削り合うようになった。

　戦国時代の国君はやがてそれぞれ「王」と称するようになり、富国強兵策を求めて、しばしば他国出身者や庶民のなかからも人材を登用し、彼らを高官や武将に任命した。隣国との国境には長城を築き、奪取した地域には郡(ぐん)を置いて統治したが、これが秦・漢時代に完成される郡県制度の母体である。

　そのなかでも、陝西省の関中平野を本拠とする秦は、函谷関(かんこくかん)で東方諸国から遮られて天然の要害をなしており、黄土地帯で農業生産にも恵まれていた。さらに前4世紀なかばには、衛からやってきた商鞅(しょうおう)による変法があって、土地制度や家族制度を切り替え、戦功に応じて爵を与えるといった思いきった改革が行われた。このような秦国の軍隊は戦意が高く、外交作戦も巧妙だったので、前3世紀には着々と函谷関以東に進出して郡を増設し、ついに同世紀末に至って東方諸国をすべて滅ぼしてしまった。

［小倉芳彦］

社会経済

鉄が使われだしたのは春秋時代の末ごろだが、戦国時代に入ると刃先に鉄をはめ込んだ農具が使われるようになり、ウシに犂(すき)を引かせる耕法も始まって、農業生産力が向上した。そのうえ、治水や灌漑(かんがい)の工事も各国で行われ、耕地面積が増大した。

　春秋時代から発達した国内交通は、戦国時代に入ると、各地域で農業、手工業の特産品が増えるとともにいっそう盛んになり、黄河と揚子江(ようすこう)をつなぐ運河も掘られて、商品の集散する大都市が現れた。斉の臨淄(りんし)、趙の邯鄲(かんたん)、秦の咸陽(かんよう)などの国都は、そういう商業都市の性格をも帯びていた。春秋時代の末ごろからは、越から亡命した、范蠡(はんれい)の変身とされる陶朱公(とうしゅこう)や、孔子の高弟の子貢(しこう)のような、遠距離間の取引を行う大商人が登場したが、戦国時代に入ると、塩や鉄を製造、販売する業者が巨富を蓄えるようになった。

　交換経済の発達とともに、都市や国家がそれぞれ鋳貨を発行するようになった。農具をかたどった布銭(ふせん)、小刀の形をした刀銭、穴あきの円銭などは青銅製だが、金製の鋳貨も楚で用いられた。

　戦国時代の国家は、国内産の物資や他国から流入する物資に課税して、財政の強化に役だてようとしたが、一方商人の側は、こうした国境の壁をしだいにじゃまと考えるようになった。秦の始皇帝が天下統一と同時に行った文字、度量衡、車の幅などの統一は、戦国時代の国内商業発達の趨勢(すうせい)をさらに一歩進めるものであった。

　こういう経済発展は家族や村落のあり方にも変化を引き起こした。春秋時代まではまだ氏族的な結び付きが強かったが、戦国時代になると5人平均の小家族が独立した家計を営むようになった。彼らのなかからは、広大な土地を取得し、有力な家族を中心に同族が寄って権勢を振るう「豪族」も出現したが、一方、土地家屋を失って奴隷や小作人に転落する者も多数出てきた。中国の現在の学界では、この春秋から戦国へかけての変化を、奴隷制から封建制への社会発展と位置づけている。

［小倉芳彦］

思想文化

春秋時代には、斉の晏子(あんし)や鄭の子産(しさん)のような学識のある貴族が国政にあたったが、下級の士身分の人たちも六芸(りくげい)（礼、楽、射、御、書、数）の教養を身につけて官吏となった。孔子が主宰した学園は、そういう教養を実習、伝授し「君子」となるための訓練を受けた弟子たちを各諸侯に推薦した。

　戦国時代になると社会の変動が激しくなって、没落した貴族の子弟が他国に亡命する一方では、商工業者や農民のなかからも才能によって立身出世する者が現れた。彼らは、富国強兵策のために人材を求めている戦国君主に向かって遊説し、法律、軍事、外交など各自の得意とする分野で頭角を現した。斉の都臨淄の稷門(しょくもん)のそばには、諸国から集まった学者たちが住む一角があって自由な討論が行われ、「稷下の学」とよばれた。

　この時代の「諸子百家」の活発な思想活動は、政治的、社会的な動揺のなかで、どうしたら中国の統一と秩序が形成されるかを、各人が各人の所信に従って積極的に発言したことによっておこった。孔子は、家族内の「孝悌(こうてい)」の徳を社会にまで広め、周代の「礼」の精神を回復しようとしたが、それを継承した戦国中期の孟子(もうし)は、「仁義」の心で政治を行い、農民の生活を安定させることを王道政治の基礎とし、戦国末の荀子(じゅんし)は、君主の定めた「礼」による秩序確立を説いた。

　以上の儒家(じゅか)に対して、墨子(ぼくし)は自国と他国、自家と他家の区別をたてることに反対し、君主の利害本位の戦争やぜいたくにも反対して墨家の祖となった。また商鞅や韓非(かんぴ)らの法家は、君主が法令によって官僚や人民を思うままに操縦し、富国強兵の目的に到達させることに専念した。

　一方、そうした儒家や法家の人為的な努力自体が乱世の原因であると批判し、道徳や知識を捨てて「自然」（道）に復帰することを説く老子(ろうし)、荘子(そうし)などの道家(どうか)も現れた。

　こうした「百家争鳴」の思想活動も、秦・漢の統一帝国の成立とともに思想統制の枠が厳しくはめられるようになり、正統思想としては孔子を尊崇する儒教だけが生き残ることになった。しかし春秋戦国時代に発達した天文学、地理学、農学、医学、数学などの学問は、現実の必要に応じてその後も充実を続けた。

［小倉芳彦］

『小倉芳彦他著『教養人の東洋史　上』（社会思想社・現代教養文庫）』▽『小倉芳彦著『中国古代政治思想研究』（1970・青木書店）』▽『貝塚茂樹他著『中国の歴史1　原始から春秋戦国』（1974・講談社）』

[参照項目] | 諸子百家 | 中国史

春秋戦国時代（列国とおもな交通路）

春秋戦国時代列国興亡表

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

<<: Spring and Autumn Dew

>>: Spring and Autumn