Monastery - shuudouin (English spelling) monastery

Japanese: 修道院 - しゅうどういん(英語表記)monastery
Monastery - shuudouin (English spelling) monastery

In Christianity, those who take special vows and practice a life according to certain rules in order to live in accordance with God's teachings are called monks or nuns, and the place where they gather and live is called a monastery. Monastic life is practiced in the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is rarely seen in Protestant churches. The lifestyle of monks varies depending on the monastic order, but they all share three basic virtues: poverty (renunciation of personal property), chastity (celibate life), and obedience (absolute obedience to the superior of the order). In ancient times, many hermits lived the life of a hermit alone, and this tradition still remains in the Eastern Orthodox Church, but today most monks live together in a monastery.

In monasteries, men and women live separately, and prayer and work are the principles of life. In monasteries with strict rules, daily routines are precisely defined, and many female monasteries have a strict ban on contact with the outside world. However, since the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), the rules of monastery life have tended to be changed or relaxed to adapt to the times.

[Yoshio Tsuruoka]

origin

In 1947, many documents were discovered in caves on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea (Dead Sea Scrolls), and it was hypothesized that the Qumran sect, which was the former owner of these documents, had a Jewish monastic system. Now that the relationship between these documents and the previously known Therapeutai group in Egypt, the Essenes in Palestine, and the Apostolic Group in Jerusalem has come into question, it may be necessary to trace the origin of Christian monasteries back to this period, but it is generally believed to have been founded by the hermits Paul and Anthony in Thebes in Middle Egypt in the latter half of the 3rd century. Anthony in particular is revered as the father of monasticism, partly because the Life of Anthony ( Vita S. Antonii ) (after 356) written by Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria was introduced to Western Europe at an early stage, and his ascetic practices provided an ideal subject for artists in the late Middle Ages and early modern times. He practiced alone in the desert or mountains, as the etymology of the word monk means "one who lives alone." This hermit-like monasticism was introduced to Palestine by his student Hilarion (c. 291-371) and to the Nile Delta by Makarios (c. 300-390), but this form was particularly popular among contemplative monks of the Eastern Church and continued to persist.

Pachomius (292/294-346), who began his monastic life in Thebes, Egypt, at about the same time as Antony, built a communal monastery to avoid the everyday inconveniences and spiritual dangers of solitary living. Within a high walled compound were several buildings, and in each building 20-40 monks lived and dined with a leader. They ate and prayed together, and wore the same clothing. Because of the communal lifestyle, the virtues of poverty and obedience were emphasized, but the obligation to work was especially emphasized. This was because it was essential for the self-sufficiency of the many monks, and in addition to farming, they wove baskets from Nile rushes and made crafts from palm leaves to sell. In an ancient world where work was despised, the Coptic monks made an outstanding contribution by passing on to future generations an ethic of respect for work.

The monastic rules written by Pachomius in Coptic were quickly translated into Greek and Latin and widely circulated, and the communal monastic lifestyle was spread as far away as Mesopotamia by his disciple Eugenius.

[Konno Kunio]

Popularity and diversity

It is said that Egyptian monasteries spread abroad because many monks left the area and emigrated to other places. Indeed, in 400, a large number of monks around Alexandria were expelled from Egypt in connection with the "Origen Controversy" that occurred between Theophilus of Alexandria and four monks who supported Origen, and in 407-408, the Nile Delta was invaded by barbarians from the Matzicae region, dealing a devastating blow to Scetis, a settlement of several thousand monks. The hermit Arsenios (date of birth and death unknown, first half of the 5th century) compared this to the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410, saying, "The world lost Rome, and the monks lost Scetis," so this may be counted as one of the reasons, but the expansion of monasteries to the east and west had already progressed considerably before the 5th century. It was in the early 4th century that Hilarion and Chariton founded scattered monasteries called laura in Palestine, and in 374 Jerome reported that there were many hermits in the wilderness of Antioch, Beroia, and Chalcis in Syria. However, it was in the 5th century that Symeon (c. 390-459) practiced asceticism on a pillar over 10 meters high for 30 years near Antioch, and won the veneration of his superiors and subordinates, but this was not introduced from Egypt. It was also in the 4th century that monasteries spread to the Cappadocia region, and the role played by Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, in particular, was outstanding, and his Rule of St. Basil is listed as the first of the four major monastic orders recognized by the Catholic Church.

The three monks who made great contributions to the spread of monasteries to the West were Rufinus (345-410), Jerome, and Cassianus (c. 360-c. 435). Rufinus returned to Rome with his monks around 396 after 12 years of monastic life in Jerusalem, and Jerome, the translator of the Vulgate Bible, wrote the Life of Paul of Thebes between 374 and 379, the Lives of Marc and Hilarion between 390 and 391, and translated the Rule of Pachomius into Latin in 404, spreading the people and systems of Egyptian monasteries to the West.

Cassianus studied at Scetis for seven years in the 390s in the 4th century, but later became involved in the controversy with Origen and traveled to Constantinople and Rome. In 406 he founded two monasteries, one for men and one for women, in Marseille, where he led monastic life for the next 30 years. His "Rules Consistant," modelled on Egypt, was widely read not only in southern France and Italy, but also in Africa, which was under Vandal rule.

[Konno Kunio]

Westward expansion

It is not known what became of the monasteries that Augustine saw and heard in Italy and brought to Hippo after his death (430), but the "Rule of St. Augustine," which he is said to have compiled, became widespread as the rules of church chapters in Western Europe, especially after the 12th century. However, the main starting points for the expansion of monasteries in the West were the island of Lérins in southern France, Marmoutier in Tours on the Loire River, and Ireland, which was Christianized by St. Patrick. The scattered monastery on the island of Lérins, founded in the early 5th century by Honoratus, a Roman consul, regenerated fallen Roman aristocrats as monks and became a major base for the development of churches and monasteries in the Rhône River basin, and Martin of Tours, as the patron saint of the newly emerging Merovingian Frankish Kingdom, became the donor of many newly established monasteries in Gaul and Italy. Ireland also carefully preserved the ancient cultural heritage transmitted from the East, and was called "uber sophiae" (breasts of wisdom), attracting learned people. The monks built more than 50 monasteries in Gaul, including Luxeuil, and left an immortal legacy. However, in terms of being a learned monk, Cassiodorus (487-583) was no less famous. He was a Roman aristocrat who became a high-ranking official in the Ostrogothic Kingdom, but retired from politics during the Gothic Wars and founded a monastery at Vivarium in southern Italy (around 540), and the well-equipped library there became a model for monastic libraries in Western Europe thereafter.

The final step in the expansion of monasteries in the early Middle Ages was the work of Anglo-Saxon monks. These were the work of Willibrord (c. 658-739) and Bonifatius (c. 675-754) in the 7th and 8th centuries. Although both were monks, they devoted themselves to evangelizing pagans and improving the church organization rather than building monasteries or educating monks, and both were appointed archbishops by the Pope. In that sense, it is correct to call the former the "Apostle of Frisia" and the latter the "Apostle of the Germans," but they were also supported by many monks in their work, and the Abbey of Echternach, which the former built around the beginning of the 8th century, and especially the Abbey of Fulda, which the latter built in 774, are known as the Monte Cassino of Germany, and both left an indelible mark on the history of monasteries, making them indelible figures.

[Konno Kunio]

Benedict of Nursia and his achievements

Many people contributed to the expansion of monasteries in Western Europe, but no other work was more important than the Rule of St. Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia at the Abbey of Monte Cassino. It was so well-known as the Magna Carta of Western monasticism that it was followed by most contemplative monasteries in Western Europe. Although this rule refers to many ancient monastic regulations, it does not require strict asceticism as in Oriental monasticism, but is consistent in its spirit of moderation, places importance on labor to ensure the economic independence of monasteries, and adapts monasteries to the agricultural society that was forming at the time. It is a monastic spirit unique to Western Europe that is evident in every aspect. It can be said that monasteries first established their Western form through this rule. Of course, it took at least two centuries for the rules to spread widely throughout Western Europe, so we must be aware that another part of the history of Western monasteries lies in the process of their slow spread.In addition, there have been many recent theories that suggest that significant parts of the rules were written by someone other than Benedict, so it is all the more important to be careful when evaluating these rules.

[Konno Kunio]

The development of monasteries

Between the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire, monasteries were destroyed and fell into decline everywhere due to attacks by the Normans, Magyars, and Muslims, but the appearance of Cluny Abbey in the early 10th century marked a new stage for Western monasteries. Not only were monastic discipline restored, liturgies improved, monastic spirit elevated, and the spiritual bond between believers and monasteries strengthened, but especially in the 11th century, the "Liberty of Cluny" was established, which included the management and administration of personnel and property of monasteries, eliminating bishoprics under the direct protection of the Pope, and was the first time in Western history that the concept and substance of a "monastic order" appeared. At its peak in the 12th century, there were approximately 1,500 affiliated monasteries, and its influence was felt throughout Europe. Cîteaux Abbey, founded in 1098 with the motto "Poor for Christ," was far more ascetic than Cluny, but in terms of organization it was democratic, in contrast to Cluny's centralized government. This order was unprecedented in the vibrancy and breadth of its economic activity. By the end of the 12th century, it had achieved great success, with 530 monasteries under its umbrella. However, when heresy began to erupt in the second half of the 12th century, the monks responded by forming a new type of mendicant order. These were the Dominicans and the Franciscans. These orders all shared the common characteristic of widely evangelizing the gospel through a second order for women and a third order for lay men and women. However, since then, many monks no longer took the vow of permanent residence in a monastery, and this must be considered to have changed the function and character of the monastery itself.

[Konno Kunio]

Modern

Since the appearance of mendicant orders in the 13th century, monastic life has not been limited to the confines of monasteries, but has come to involve a great deal of missionary work and charitable work in secular society. However, Protestant churches based on the Protestant Reformation that occurred in the 16th century rejected the unique lifestyle of monasteries and the status of monks themselves, and in areas dominated by Protestants, monasteries were abolished and their property confiscated. As Christian society as a whole underwent a major transformation from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, the nature of monasteries also underwent major changes. In parallel with or in response to the Protestant Reformation, various reform movements had already arisen within the Catholic Church, and many movements also arose within existing monastic orders.

One of the aims of the monastic reform movement at that time was to tighten the rules of monastic life, which had become relaxed and corrupted, by faithfully adhering to the ancient rules of the orders, and to return to the original ideals of monastic life, which are prayer and work. Movements in this direction include the Capuchin Order, which separated from the Franciscans, the Discalced Carmelites, which separated from the Carmelites, and the Feuillant movement within the Cistercian Order. Similar reforms were also attempted by the Dominicans and Premonstratensians.

The other direction was the recovery of lost territories to the forces of the Protestant Reformation, and the active advancement and propagation of Christianity into non-Christian regions, which had rapidly come into view during the so-called Age of Discovery. In the 16th and 17th centuries, it was mendicant orders such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, and above all the Jesuits, newly established in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola, who went to various parts of the Orient, including Japan, Africa, and the Americas to spread Western Christianity throughout the world. The Jesuits were characterized by their military organization and the high mobility and activity that resulted from it. Contrary to the traditional ideal of monastic life of staying in one place, they were sent all over the world to carry out practical activities in all fields in order to realize "the greater glory of God" (the Jesuit motto) on earth. Around the same time, the Society of Barnabas, with the aim of educating and evangelizing the general public, the Society of Camillus, with the aim of caring for the sick, and the Hospitallers of St. John of God were also founded, and social activities such as education and charity came to become one of the central purposes of monastic life.

Since then, active religious orders have been established in each era and region to suit the social conditions of each region, and they largely followed the Jesuit model. In particular, the activities of Vincentius a Paulo (1581-1660) in 17th century France gave rise to active religious orders of women that went beyond the confines of monastic territories, and since then, over 1,000 female religious orders have been established. Thus, modern monastic activity has continued to exist and develop, shifting its emphasis from the contemplative life of the Middle Ages to an active life, despite declines such as the temporary dissolution of the Society of Jesus (1773-1814) during the Enlightenment and the prohibition of monastic life under the French Revolution.

[Yoshio Tsuruoka]

present day

However, in the 20th century, the trend towards secularization and distance from the Church became prevalent in Western society as a whole, and as a result, the number of monks, especially in strict contemplative orders, decreased considerably. In modern times, it is not uncommon to find "monasteries" where a few people live together in an apartment in a big city, rather than the large monasteries in the mountains that were once found in remote areas. However, in recent years, this decline seems to be slowing down. According to a 1981 report, there were 225 male orders officially recognized by the Roman Catholic Church (including 83 Ordo orders), 31,139 monasteries (including all forms) (12,112 in 1981), and 238,798 monks (105,255 in 1981), with the number of monks decreasing at an annual rate of about 1%. Similarly, there are 1,217 female orders, both large and small, with a total of 737,729 nuns.

[Yoshio Tsuruoka]

Japanese Monastery

The history of monasteries in Japan dates back to the Christian era in the 16th century. The first monasteries in the broad sense were probably the communal residences of Jesuits who came to Japan to spread their faith, as well as the colleges (collegesios) and training schools (noviciados) built in Funai (Oita) and other areas to train Japanese priests and monks. It is also said that there were already Japanese female religious orders (the so-called "Miyako no Bikuni-tachi" (nuns of the capital) at this time. However, the establishment of full-scale monasteries in Japan was only after the Meiji era, when the ban on Christianity was lifted. The first monasteries were established in 1872 (Meiji 5) by five nuns from the French Congregation of Saint-Maur (Sisters of Charity Education of the Blessed Infant Jesus) who came to Japan and opened a monastery on the site of the former British military barracks in the Yamate settlement in Yokohama. As for traditional monastic orders (Ordes) that have existed since the Middle Ages, the French Cistercian Order (Trapps) opened the famous Notre Dame du Fou Trappist monastery in Ishikura Bangaichi, Mobetsu Village, Kamiiso County, Hokkaido (Hokuto City) in 1896, and then the women's branch of the same order, the Cistercian Sisters of the Strict Observance, opened the Notre Dame des Anges Trappistine monastery in Kamiyunokawa (now Kamiyunokawa-cho, Hakodate City) on the outskirts of Hakodate in 1898. Since then, influential monastic orders such as the Dominican Order (1904), Franciscan Order (1907), and Society of the Divine Word (1907) have come to Japan one after another, and the Jesuits also returned in 1908 (Meiji 41). Currently, there are 47 men's and 94 women's religious orders, including some that were created in Japan. The basic structure and principles of life of monasteries are the same all over the world, but this does not mean that the cultural traditions of each region are ignored. Even in Japan, wooden-floored churches that incorporate Japanese architectural styles have been built.

[Yoshio Tsuruoka]

Monastic architecture

The exact origins of Christian monasteries are unclear, but the establishment of the system is clearly evident in Egypt in the 3rd century. Pachomius, from Upper Egypt, built a monastery at Tabenis in Thebes, laying the foundations for the monastic system of communal living. The monastery he built consisted of five or six buildings built within a compound surrounded by walls, each housing 20 to 40 monks. A chapel, a refectory, a library, and accommodation for visitors were also built within the compound.

From the 5th century onwards, monastic systems inheriting Eastern religious traditions began to flourish all over Europe. The monastery established by Benedict in Monte Cassino, southern Italy in 529, was equipped with all the necessities of life in order to avoid unnecessary contact with the outside world. For this reason, the large monastery had a church at its centre, as well as facilities seen in Eastern monasteries such as a refectory and library, and even auxiliary buildings for farming and processing crops, but there is no way to know the exact layout of these. In addition, the blueprints created around 820 and kept by the famous St. Gall Abbey in Switzerland that remain to this day were created as a general guide to monastic architecture at the time, and do not show the actual condition of the monastery at that time. However, they are valuable materials that show us what the ideal design of monastic architecture in the Middle Ages was like. The monks' quarters, arranged along the cloister surrounding the cathedral and the adjacent courtyard, are the traditional core of the monastery, but the monastery also includes accommodation for the serfs, stables for livestock, food processing facilities and lime kilns for construction, aiming to be completely self-sufficient.

In the late Middle Ages, the Franciscans and Dominicans marked a new era in the history of monasteries with the so-called "mendicant friars." It was only natural that these friars, who idealized poverty and simplicity in monastic life, needed smaller and more modest monastery designs than had been used up to then. In contrast, the monasteries of the so-called teaching orders (especially the Jesuits, founded in the 16th century) were combined with schools and dormitories, and their size was not much different from that of the palace buildings of the same period. The medieval monastic architecture tradition of emphasizing cloisters surrounding courtyards was abolished in the Baroque period, and luxurious large halls began to be built within the monasteries.

[Katsuya Hamatani]

"Monasteries" by Konno Kunio (1971, Kondo Publishing)""Monasteries" by D. Knowles, translated by Asakura Bunichi (1972, Heibonsha)""Society and the Church in Medieval Western Europe" by Konno Kunio (1973, Iwanami Shoten)""Monasteries" by Konno Kunio (Iwanami Shinsho)""History of Christianity I and II by Handa Motoo and Konno Kunio (1977, Yamakawa Publishing)""History of Christianity III by Moriyasu Tatsuya (1978, Yamakawa Publishing)"

[Reference] | Monastic Order
Plan of the Abbey of St. Gall
©Shogakukan ">

Plan of the Abbey of St. Gall


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

キリスト教において、神の教えにもっともかなった生活をするべく、特別な誓い(誓願)をたて、一定の戒律にのっとった生活を実践する者を修道士または修道女とよび、彼らの集まって生活する場を修道院という。修道生活はカトリック教会や東方正教会で行われるもので、プロテスタント諸教会ではほとんどみられない。修道者の生活ぶりは各修道会によりさまざまだが、清貧(私有財産の放棄)、貞潔(独身生活)、服従(会の上長者への絶対的服従)の三つの原則的な徳目は共通である。古代には1人で隠者の生活を送る隠修士も多く、東方正教会にはいまもその伝統は残っているが、現代ではほとんどの修道者は修道院で共住の形をとる。

 修道院は男女別住であり、祈りと労働がその生活原理である。戒律の厳しい修道院では毎日の日課が克明に定められており、女子修道院では外部との交流を厳しく制限する禁入制をとるところも少なくない。ただし第二バチカン公会議(1962~65)以降、修道院の生活規則も、時代に適応するべく変更ないし緩和される傾向にある。

[鶴岡賀雄]

起源

1947年、死海の北西岸の洞窟(どうくつ)で多くの文書が発見され(死海文書)、この文書の旧所有者たるクムラン教団にユダヤ教修道制が存在していたことが想定された。これと、従来から知られていたエジプトのテラペウタイの集団やパレスチナのエッセネ派、エルサレムの使徒集団との関係が問題にされるようになった現在では、キリスト教修道院の起源もこの時代までさかのぼって論じられなければならないかもしれないが、通常は、3世紀後半期に中部エジプトのテーベで隠者パウロやアントニウスによって創設されたとされている。とくにアントニウスは、アレクサンドリアの主教アタナシウスの筆になる『アントニウスの生涯』Vita S. Antonii(356以後)が早くから西ヨーロッパに伝えられたこともあり、修道制の父として尊敬され、その苦行ぶりは、中世末、近世初頭の画家たちに絶好の画題を提供してきた。彼は、monkの語源「ひとり住む者」のとおりに、砂漠や山中で1人で修行した。この隠修士的修道制は、彼の弟子ヒラリオンHilarion(291ころ―371)によってパレスチナに、また同じくマカリオスMakarios(300ころ―390ころ)によってナイル川デルタ地帯に伝えられたが、この形式は瞑想(めいそう)的な東方教会の修道士にとくに好まれて根強く続いていった。

 アントニウスとほぼ同じころ、同じエジプトのテーベで修道生活を始めたパコミウスPachomius(292/294―346)は、独住のもたらす日常的な不便と精神的危険を避けるために共同生活の修道院を建てた。高い塀を巡らした敷地内にいくつかの建物があり、それぞれに20~40人の修道士が1人の指導者と起居をともにする。食事や祈りは共同で行い、服装も同一である。共同生活のため清貧、服従の徳目は重視されたが、労働の義務はとくに強調された。これは多数の修道士の自活上不可欠であったからで、彼らは農耕のほか、ナイルのイグサで籠(かご)を編み、シュロの葉で細工物をつくって売り物にした。労働を軽視した古代世界のなかで、労働尊重の倫理を後代に残したのは、コプト人修道士の際だった貢献である。

 パコミウスがコプト語で記した修道規定は、早くからギリシア語、ラテン語に訳されて広く流布し、共同生活様式の修道院は彼の弟子エウゲニウスEugeniusによって遠くメソポタミアにまで伝えられた。

[今野國雄]

普及と多様性

エジプトの修道院が外部に広まってゆくのは、多数の修道士がこの地を去って他に移住したためともいわれる。確かに、400年ごろアレクサンドリアのテオフィロスとオリゲネスを支持する4人の修道士との間でおこった「オリゲネス論争」に関連して、アレクサンドリア近辺の修道士は大量にエジプトから追放されたし、407~408年にはナイル川のデルタ地帯がマツィカエ地方の蛮族の侵入を受け、数千人の修道士の集落たるスケティスに壊滅的な打撃を与えた。そのことを、隠修士アルセニオスArsenios(生没年不詳、5世紀前半の人)は西ゴート人による410年のローマ略奪になぞらえて、「世界はローマを失い、修道士はスケティスを失った」と語ったから、これも原因の一つに数えられようが、修道院の東西への拡大は5世紀に入る前にすでにかなり進捗(しんちょく)していた。ヒラリオンとカリトンがパレスチナにラウラlauraとよばれる散居型の修道院を開いたのは、4世紀の前期であったし、シリアのアンティオキア、ベロイア、カルキスの荒野に多数の隠者がいることをヒエロニムスが報告したのは、374年のことである。もっとも、アンティオキアの近くでシメオンSymeon (Simeon)(390ころ―459)が10メートル以上もある柱の上で、30年もの間修行して上下の崇敬を集めたのは5世紀に入ってのことであるが、これはエジプトから入ったものではなかった。カッパドキア地方に修道院が広まるのも4世紀中のことで、ここではとくにカエサレアの司教バシレイオスの果たした役割が抜群で、彼の著した『聖バシレイオス会則』は、カトリック教会が認める四大修道会則の筆頭にあげられている。

 修道院を西方に広めるうえで大きな貢献をしたのは、ルフィヌスLufinus(345―410)、ヒエロニムス、カッシアヌスCassianus(360ころ―435ころ)である。ルフィヌスがエルサレムでの12年間の修道生活ののち修道士とともにローマに帰ったのは396年ころで、ブルガータ聖書の翻訳者ヒエロニムスは、374~379年に『テーベのパウロ伝』を、390~391年に『マルクス伝』『ヒラリオン伝』を著し、404年には『パコミウス修道会則』をラテン語に訳し、エジプト修道院の人と制度を西方に伝えた。

 カッシアヌスがスケティスで7年間修行したのは4世紀の390年代であるが、その後オリゲネス論争に巻き込まれてコンスタンティノープル、ローマと旅をし、406年マルセイユに男女二つの修道院を建て、以後ここで30年にわたって修道生活を指導したが、エジプトを手本にした彼の『共住修道掟則(ていそく)』は、南フランスやイタリアだけでなく、バンダル人支配下のアフリカでも広く読まれた。

[今野國雄]

西方における拡大

アウグスティヌスがイタリアで見聞してヒッポに伝えた修道院が、彼の死(430)後どうなったかはわからないが、彼が編纂(へんさん)したといわれる『聖アウグスティヌス会則』は、とくに12世紀以後、西ヨーロッパの聖堂参事会の準則として普及した。しかし、西方における修道院拡大の主たる出発点となったのは、南フランスのレランス島、ロアール川に臨むトゥールのマルムーティエ、および聖パトリックによってキリスト教化したアイルランドである。ローマのコンスルの家柄であったホノラトゥスによって5世紀初頭開かれたレランス島の散居修道院は、ローマの没落貴族を修道士として再生させ、ローヌ川流域一帯の教会、修道院の発展にとっての一大根拠地となったし、トゥールのマルティヌスは新興のメロビング朝フランク王国の守護聖人として、ガリアとイタリアにおける多数の新設修道院の被奉献人となる。また、アイルランドは東方から伝えられた古代の文化遺産をたいせつに保存し、「知恵の乳房」uber sophiaeとよばれて好学の者を集めたが、修道士たちはガリアにリュクスーユをはじめとする50以上の修道院を建設して不滅の功績を残した。しかし、好学の修道士という点では、カッシオドルスCassiodorus(487―583)もこれに劣らない。彼は東ゴート王国の高官になったローマ人貴族であるが、ゴート戦役中に政界を退き、南イタリアのウィワリウムVivariumに修道院を建てた(540ころ)が、その整備された図書館は以後西欧の修道院図書館の手本となった。

 中世前期の修道院拡大の最後の仕上げをするのはアングロ・サクソン人修道士たちである。7世紀から8世紀にかけてのビリブロードWillibrord(658ころ―739)およびボニファティウスBonifatius(675ころ―754)の仕事がそれである。もっとも、この2人はともに修道士ではあったが、修道院の建設や修道士の教育よりも異教徒への伝道や教会組織の整備に努め、2人ともローマ教皇から大司教に任じられている。したがってその意味では前者が「フリースラントの使徒」、後者が「ドイツ人の使徒」とよばれるのは正しいが、彼らの仕事には多くの修道士が協力しているし、前者が8世紀初めごろ建てたエヒテルナハ修道院、とくに後者が774年建てたフルダ修道院はドイツのモンテ・カッシーノとよばれて、ともに修道院の歴史に消えざる足跡を残しているから、やはり忘れることのできない人物である。

[今野國雄]

ヌルシアのベネディクトゥスとその業績

西欧に修道院が拡大してゆくうえで実に多くの人々の協力があったが、その重要性という点ではヌルシアのベネディクトゥスがモンテ・カッシーノ修道院で執筆した『聖ベネディクトゥス会則』に勝るものはない。これは「西欧修道制のマグナ・カルタ」とよばれるほど、後の西欧のほとんどの観想修道院で遵奉されたからである。この会則は、古来の多くの修道規定を参照しているが、オリエント修道制のように厳格な苦行を要求せず、中庸の精神をもって一貫し、労働を重視して修道院の経済的自立を確保し、おりから形成されつつあった農業社会に修道院を適応させるなど、西欧独自の修道精神が至る所に発揮されており、修道院はこの会則によって初めてその西欧的形態を確立したといえよう。もちろんこの会則が西欧に広く行き渡るまでには、作成後少なくとも2世紀はかかったから、その緩慢な普及の過程に西欧の修道院のもう一つの歴史が潜んでいることにも注意しなければならないし、また最近では、この会則のかなりの部分がベネディクトゥス以外の者の作という説も多いから、この会則の評価はそれだけ慎重を要することになる。

[今野國雄]

修道院の発展

修道院は、カロリング帝国が崩壊してから神聖ローマ帝国の成立するまでに、ノルマン人、マジャール人、イスラム教徒の攻撃を受けて至る所で破壊され、衰微したが、10世紀初頭クリュニー修道院の出現によって西欧の修道院は新しい段階を迎えた。修道規律が回復し、典礼が整備され、修道精神は高揚し、信者と修道院の精神的紐帯(ちゅうたい)が強化されたばかりでなく、とくに11世紀に入るや、ローマ教皇の直接保護下に司教権を排除し、修道院の人事・財産の管理・運営を含む「クリュニーの自由」が確立され、「修道会」の概念と実体が西洋史上初めて出現したことはとくに注目に値する。12世紀に最盛期を迎えたとき、所属の修道院は約1500を数えたから、その影響はヨーロッパ中至る所にみられた。「キリストの貧者」をモットーに1098年建設されたシトー修道院は、クリュニーに比べるとはるかに禁欲主義に徹底していたが、組織の面ではクリュニーの中央集権とは対照的に民主的であった。この修道会はその経済活動の活発さと広範さにおいて前例をみなかった。12世紀末までに傘下に530修道院を数える成功を収めた。しかし、12世紀後半から異端が激発するや、修道士は托鉢(たくはつ)修道会という新しい形態をもってこれに対応する。ドミニコ会、フランシスコ会が、これである。これらの修道会は、いずれも女子の第二修道会、一般男女信者の第三修道会をもって広く福音(ふくいん)伝道を行った点に共通の特色をもっている。しかし、以後修道士は多く修道院に一所定住の誓願を行わなくなったという点では、修道院そのものの機能と性格が変わってしまったと考えなければならない。

[今野國雄]

近代

13世紀の托鉢修道会の出現以降、修道生活は修道院の禁域内にとどまらず、世俗社会のただ中での布教や慈善事業などにも多くかかわるようになった。しかし16世紀に起こった宗教改革に基づくプロテスタント諸教会は、修道院という特殊な生活形態や修道者という身分自体を否定するものであり、プロテスタントが支配する地域では修道院の廃止、財産の没収なども行われた。こうして中世から近世へとキリスト教社会の全体が大きく転換してゆくなかで、修道院のあり方にも大きな変化がもたらされた。すでに宗教改革に並行ないし対応して、カトリック教会内にも種々の改革運動が生まれており、既成の修道会内部でも多くの運動が発生した。

 当時の修道会改革運動が目ざした方向は、一つには、緩和化され、堕落しつつあった修道生活の規律を、古来の会則を忠実に厳守することによって引き締め、祈りと労働という修道生活本来の理想に帰ることであった。この方向の運動としては、フランシスコ会から分離したカプチン会、カルメル会から分かれた跣足(せんそく)カルメル会の設立、シトー会内でのフィヤン派の運動などがあり、ドミニコ会、プレモントレ会などでも同様の改革が試みられている。

 いま一つの方向は、宗教改革勢力に対する失地回復、また、いわゆる大航海時代になって急速に視野に入ってきた非キリスト教地域への積極的な進出、布教であった。16、17世紀にかけて、日本を含む東洋やアフリカ、アメリカ大陸の各地に赴いて宣教し、西欧のキリスト教を全世界に広めたのは、フランシスコ会、ドミニコ会、アウグスティヌス会など托鉢修道会の人々、そしてなによりも、1540年イグナティウス・デ・ロヨラによって新たに設立されたイエズス会の人々であった。イエズス会は軍隊的組織とそれに基づく高い機動性、活動性を特色とし、従来の修道生活の理想であった一所定住とは反対に、「神のより大いなる栄光」(イエズス会のモットー)を地上に実現するため、全世界に派遣され、あらゆる分野で実践的活動を行おうとするものであった。また同じころ、一般民衆の教化宣導を目的としたバルナバ会、病人看護を目的としたカミロ会、神の聖ヨハネ病院修士会なども創設され、教育、慈善事業など、社会的活動が修道生活の中心目的の一つとなるに至った。

 以後、各時代ごと、地域ごとに、それぞれの社会状況に見合った活動的修道会が続々と設立されるが、それらは大筋では、このイエズス会的なあり方に倣ったものである。とりわけ、17世紀フランスのウィンケンティウス・ア・パウロVincentius a Paulo(1581―1660)らの活動は禁域内にとどまらない女子の活動的修道会を生み出し、以後、1000を超える数の女子修道会が設立されるに至っている。こうして近代の修道院活動は、啓蒙(けいもう)主義時代におけるイエズス会の一時解散(1773~1814)、フランス革命下での修道生活の禁止などの退潮はあったが、中世の観想的生活から活動的生活へとその比重を移しつつ、存続、発展してきた。

[鶴岡賀雄]

現代

しかし20世紀に入ると、欧米社会全体の世俗化、教会離れが大きな潮流となり、それに伴いとくに規律の厳しい観想修道会などでは修道者数のかなりの減少がみられた。現代では、かつての人里離れた山中の大修道院ではなく、大都会のアパートの一室に数人で共同生活を営むような「修道院」もまれではない。ただし近年ではこの退潮傾向にもブレーキがかかりつつあるかにもみえる。1981年の資料では、ローマ・カトリック教会公認の男子修道会数は全部で225(うち厳律修道(オルド)会83)、修道院数(あらゆる形態のものを含む)3万1139(同1万2112)、修道士数23万8798(同10万5255)で、修道士数は年間1%程度の減少率となっている。同じく女子修道会は、大小あわせて1217の会が存在し、全修道女数は73万7729となっている。

[鶴岡賀雄]

日本の修道院

日本における修道院の歴史は16世紀のキリシタン時代にまでさかのぼる。布教のため来日したイエズス会士らが共同生活をした住居、また、日本人聖職者、修道士育成のため府内(大分)はじめ各地に建てた大学(コレジオ)、修道士養成校(ノビシアード)などが広義の修道院の初めであろう。また、この時代すでに日本人による女子修道会(いわゆる「みやこの比丘尼(びくに)たち」)があったともいわれる。しかし、わが国における本格的な修道院設立は、明治に入りキリシタン禁制が解かれてからのことで、1872年(明治5)フランスのサン・モール会(聖嬰イエズス愛徳教育修道会)の修道女5人が来日し、横浜の山手居留地英国兵屯地跡に修道院を開いたのが最初とされている。中世以来の伝統的修道会(オルド)としては、1896年にフランスの厳律シトー会(トラップ派)が北海道上磯(かみいそ)郡茂別(もべつ)村石倉番外地(北斗(ほくと)市)に有名な灯台の聖母(ノートル・ダム・デュ・フアール)トラピスト修道院を開き、続いて同会の女子部、厳律シトー修道女会も、98年に函館(はこだて)郊外上湯ノ川(現函館市上湯ノ川町)に天使の聖母(ノートル・ダム・デ・ザンジュ)トラピスチヌ修道院を開設した。以後、ドミニコ会(1904)、フランシスコ会(1907)、神言会(1907)など有力な修道会が次々に来日し、イエズス会も1908年(明治41)には再来日している。現状では、わが国で生まれたものも含めて、男子47、女子94の各種修道会が活動している。なお、修道院の基本構造や生活の原則は全世界で共通であるが、それは各地域の文化的伝統をまったく無視したものではない。わが国においても、日本の建築様式を取り入れた板敷きの聖堂などもつくられている。

[鶴岡賀雄]

修道院建築

キリスト教修道院の正確な起源は不明であるが、その制度の確立がはっきり認められるのは3世紀のエジプトである。上エジプト出身のパコミウスはテーベのタベニスに修道院を建て、共同生活による修道院制度の基礎を築いたのであるが、彼による修道院建築は、四囲に塀を巡らした構内に建てられた5棟ないし6棟の建物からなり、20人から40人の修道士がそれぞれ居住した。構内にはそのほか聖堂、食堂、図書室、外来者の宿泊施設も建てられた。

 5世紀以降ヨーロッパ各地に、東方の宗教的伝統を継承した修道院制度が勃興(ぼっこう)するが、529年にベネディクトゥスが南イタリアのモンテカッシーノに開設した修道院は、外界との無益な接触を避けるため、生活に必要ないっさいのものを備えるようになった。そのため、広い構内には聖堂を中心に、食堂、図書室など東方の修道院にみられた施設のほかに、農園や収穫物の処理に必要な付属建造物まで併設されたが、それらの正確な配置については知る手だてが失われている。また820年ごろに作成され現在に伝えられているスイスの有名なザンクト・ガレン修道院所蔵の設計図は、当時の修道院建築一般の手引書としてつくられたものであり、この修道院の往時の実態を示すものではない。しかしこれは中世における修道院建築の理想的設計がどのようなものであったかを知らせる貴重な資料である。聖堂とそれに隣接する中庭を囲む回廊に沿って配置される修道士たちの居室は、修道院の中核をなす伝統的施設であるが、ここにはそのほかに農奴の住居、家畜小屋、食糧品の加工設備から建築用の石灰炉までが備えられており、完全な自給自足が志向されている。

 中世末期になると、フランシスコ会やドミニコ会が、いわゆる「托鉢(たくはつ)修道士」による新時代を修道院の歴史に画することになる。清貧・簡素を修道生活の理想とするこれらの修道士たちが、在来のものより小規模かつ質素な修道院設計を必要視したのは当然である。これに対し、いわゆる教職修道会(なかでも16世紀に創設されたイエズス会)の修道院は学校や寄宿舎と併合されており、その規模は同時代の宮廷建築と大差がない。そして中庭を囲む回廊を重視する中世以来の修道院建築の伝統はバロック時代に廃止され、院内に豪華な大広間が設けられるようになった。

[濱谷勝也]

『今野国雄著『修道院』(1971・近藤出版社)』『D・ノウルズ著、朝倉文市訳『修道院』(1972・平凡社)』『今野國雄著『西欧中世の社会と教会』(1973・岩波書店)』『今野國雄著『修道院』(岩波新書)』『半田元夫・今野國雄著『キリスト教史Ⅰ・Ⅱ』(1977・山川出版社)』『森安達也著『キリスト教史Ⅲ』(1978・山川出版社)』

[参照項目] | 修道会
ザンクト・ガレン修道院の平面設計図
©Shogakukan">

ザンクト・ガレン修道院の平面設計図


出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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