William Shakespeare

Japanese: シェークスピア - しぇーくすぴあ（英語表記）William Shakespeare

British poet and playwright. He is said to be the greatest playwright in the history of world theater and the greatest poet in the history of British literature. Since the 18th century, an independent academic field called Shakespeare Studies has developed, and in Britain, Shakespeare's plays are used as test cases for all critical principles, and in the British theater world, Shakespeare's plays are the gateway to success for actors. The fact that he is always welcomed by audiences all over the world is also a source of wonder.

[Jiro Ozu]

Early life

Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, in the midlands of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the peak of the English Renaissance. His father was a leather worker and also worked as a wholesaler of agricultural produce and wool. His mother was from a wealthy farming family living nearby. His father was elected mayor in 1568, and Shakespeare enjoyed a happy childhood as the eldest son of a wealthy citizen, studying at the town's grammar school, but his father's decline began when he was 13, and it is believed he was not allowed to go to university. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway (1556-1623), who was eight years his senior. Six months later, in May 1583, his first daughter Susanna (1583-1649) was born, and in February 1585, he had twin children, Hamnet (1585-1596) and Judith (1585-1662). There are no records of Shakespeare's childhood, and his involvement with theater is unclear, but as the son of a prominent member of the town, he likely had many opportunities to attend plays. The circumstances and dates of his move to London are also unknown, and there is a legend that he left his hometown after mischievously stealing a deer from the Lucy family, a wealthy family in the suburbs, which led to an unexpected scandal, but there is no solid evidence of this. It is not known whether he moved to London for some reason and then joined a theatrical company, or whether he moved to Tokyo with a theatrical company after already having some experience as an actor, but his life as an actor in London appears to have begun around the end of the 1580s, and there are documents showing that he was well-regarded as an up-and-coming theatrical actor in 1592.

[Jiro Ozu]

Apprenticeship period

It is unclear when Shakespeare began his playwriting career, but most scholars estimate it was around 1590. He probably started out as an assistant, revising plays written by older writers, but he soon began to produce plays that could be called his own. In that sense, the historical play "Henry VI" trilogy (1590-1592) can be considered his debut work. Its sequel, "Richard III" (1593), depicts the final stages of the Wars of the Roses (1455-1585), a civil war between the houses of York and Lancaster that had a major impact on Elizabethan England during his lifetime. The creation of the protagonist, Richard III, is noteworthy. Other early works include The Comedy of Errors (1593), which could be considered an adaptation of the Roman comic playwright Plautus, the farce The Taming of the Shrew (1594), and Titus Andronicus (1593), a Roman history play along the lines of bloody tragedies that were at the height of popularity at the time. All of these works were merely studies, and while they still retain imitations of their predecessors and immature parts, the seeds of a great writer were already evident around this time.

[Jiro Ozu]

Reorganization of the theatre

From 1592, the London theatres were closed for three years due to the plague. During that time, Shakespeare dedicated two epic poems, "Venus and Adonis" (1593) and "The Rape of Lucrece" (1594), to Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton (1573-1624), and gained his favor. In 1594, a theatrical company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, was founded under the patronage of the Lord Chancellor, and Shakespeare joined as a senior member. The large-scale reorganization of the London theatre scene, which could be said to have been a result of the closure of the theatres, created an environment favorable for up-and-coming playwrights such as Shakespeare. He would write plays for this company for the rest of his life, and his first works were "Romeo and Juliet," a tragic love story of fate, "Richard II," a historical drama depicting the process by which a poetic and self-absorbed king grows into a tragic hero after going through many hardships, and "A Midsummer Night's Dream," a romantic comedy that creates a fantastical world set in a forest at night on the outskirts of Athens. All of these works were written around 1595, and share a common characteristic of lyricism, but they are not simply emotional works; they already show the keen observation of humanity that is a major feature of Shakespeare's plays.

[Jiro Ozu]

The Creation of Falstaff

However, it is in the works of the next period that Shakespeare's insight into human nature becomes more profound. In the latter half of the 1590s, he mainly wrote historical plays and comedies, the most representative of the former being the two-part "Henry IV" (1598). Set against the backdrop of a dark age of intrigue and turmoil in England under the rule of Henry IV, who had been established by seizing the throne from Richard II, Falstaff, an old knight living a life of debauchery, is considered to be one of the most interesting characters created by Shakespeare, along with Hamlet. Although Falstaff's debauchery in partnership with Prince Hal is morally reprehensible, his immense human appeal has made him, along with Hamlet, the center of Shakespeare's character studies since the 18th century. Moreover, one of the representative comedies of this period, The Merchant of Venice (1597), features the greedy Jewish moneylender Shylock in a sweet romantic comedy. Although the author has him follow the fate of a villain in accordance with social convention, he also has him strongly convey the sadness and resentment of an oppressed minority group, giving the impression of a kind heart toward human beings and an impartial observation of society.

[Jiro Ozu]

Establishing a reputation

The Lord Chancellor's Men developed smoothly, becoming the leading theatre company in England, and Shakespeare's fame was also established. Although he had the misfortune of losing his eldest son in 1596, he obtained the right to wear his coat of arms for his father in the autumn of the same year, and in 1597 purchased New Place, a large mansion in Stratford, proving that he was also financially successful. The Lord Chancellor's Men's greatest weakness, the theatre issue, was also resolved after some twists and turns, but in 1599 the Globe Theatre was built on the south bank of the River Thames, and it became the company's permanent theatre. It seems that Shakespeare's creative ability was also at its peak around this time. "As You Like It" (1599) is a comedy set in the Forest of Arden, depicting the romantic love story of a young man and woman against the backdrop of the idyllic life of a duke exiled from court and his servants. It lives up to its reputation as a masterpiece, but it does not forget to introduce the melancholic Jake Eyes to remind us that there is also darkness in this world. The next comedy, "Twelfth Night," was written around 1600 and was probably written for performance at court. It is highly regarded as Shakespeare's greatest comedy. Although it is full of romantic aroma overall, the beautiful harmony between the elegant main story and the lively supporting stories is one of the reasons for its success.

[Jiro Ozu]

The Birth of the Four Great Tragedies

Around this time, Shakespeare wrote the tragedy Julius Caesar (1599), which was based on Roman history, and some critics refer to the next few years as his "tragic period." The so-called four great tragedies, along with Hamlet (1601), Othello (1604), King Lear (1605), and Macbeth (1606), are concentrated in this period. It is impossible to generalize about the four great tragedies because each one has a different subject matter and handles it differently, but each one drives a tragic wedge into the discrepancy between appearance and content, between appearance and reality, presents a grand tragic world of humans who seem to have to pay the greatest price to obtain the truth, and attempts to explore human values in relation to death, creating the greatest tragedies in the history of world theater. However, Shakespeare did not only write tragedies during this period, but also comedies such as All's Well That Ends Well (1602) and Measure for Measure (1604). Although the endings of both works are comical, they are unnatural results of the forced plot, and the works as a whole have a dark shadow over them, and some critics have given them the name "problem comedies" because of the moral confusion. The final tragedy of this period was Antony and Cleopatra (1607), but Timon of Athens (1607), written around the same time and themed on ingratitude, shows so much confusion with the tragic form that one wonders if it was unfinished.

[Jiro Ozu]

The popularity of romance plays

When Elizabeth I died in 1603 and James I was welcomed from Scotland, the Lord Chancellor's Men came under the patronage of the King and were renamed the King's Men. Around this time, British theater also began to change, and audience tastes also shifted. Plays of intense emotion centered on giant protagonists shifted to family tragedies, satirical comedies, sentimental tragedies and decadent tragedies. In response to this trend, in 1608 the King's Men acquired the Blackfriars Theatre, which had a different architectural style from the Globe Theatre, had higher admission fees and was aimed at a relatively wealthy audience. It is likely that this was not unrelated to the company's management policy, but Shakespeare's works also began to show a new trend from around 1608. These are tragicomedies known as romances, and representative works include "A Winter's Tale" (1610) and "The Tempest" (1611), Shakespeare's last solo work. The theme of the story beginning with the separation of a family and ending with reunion and reconciliation shows that Shakespeare did not necessarily follow the trends of the time, but rather developed his own unique world.

[Jiro Ozu]

The finest poetry

Almost half of Shakespeare's 37 plays were published during his lifetime. His Sonnets, whose creation date is unknown, were published in 1609 and are highly regarded as the quintessence of English sonnets. They may also contain autobiographical elements, making them an endlessly fascinating work. The complete works were published after his death in 1623, edited by his former fellow actors John Heminge (1556-1630) and Henry Condell (?-1627), and are commonly known as the First Folio. Shakespeare is thought to have spent the last few years of his life with his family in his hometown, but he died at the age of 52. His death date was April 23, but since his birthday is also estimated to have been around April 23, this date is considered Shakespeare's anniversary. His art explores the inner world of humans to the extreme through the medium of theatre, but another major feature is that it is dominated by verse filled with the highest poetic expression.

[Jiro Ozu]

Impact on Japan

Shakespeare was introduced to Japan in the early Meiji period and several adaptations were made, but the first translation was Tsubouchi Shoyo's translation of Julius Caesar, Jiyunotachinagori no Kireaji (1884, Meiji 17). Shoyo founded the Literary Association in 1906 (Meiji 39) and was eager to perform Shakespeare's works, but this enthusiasm faded when the association was dissolved, and although there were occasional good performances thereafter, Shakespeare performances were generally lackluster. However, after the Second World War, Shakespeare became popular again with the performances of the theater company "Kumo" translated and directed by Tsuneari Fukuda, a new modern translation by Yushi Odashima (1930-) was published, and the theater company "Shakespeare Theater" led by Norio Deguchi (1940-2020) performed all of Shakespeare's works, making Shakespeare familiar to Japanese readers and audiences. The Japan Shakespeare Society, which was founded in 1929 (Showa 4) by scholars and enthusiasts, was reorganized in 1961 (Showa 36) as a purely academic organization and is engaged in research activities such as publishing the annual English-language research journal "Shakespeare Studies."

[Jiro Ozu]

"New Revised Complete Works of Shakespeare, translated by Tsubouchi Shoyo, 40 volumes (1933-1935, Chuokoron-Shinsha)" ▽ "Complete Works of Shakespeare, translated by Fukuda Tsuneari, 15 volumes (1959-1967, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Complete Works of Shakespeare, edited by Fukuhara Rintaro and Nakano Yoshio, 8 volumes (1967-1974, Chikumashobo)" ▽ "Complete Works of Shakespeare, translated by Odashima Yushi, 7 volumes (1973-75, Hakusuisha)" ▽ "Shakespeare Studies, by Saito Isamu (1949, Kenkyusha Publishing)" ▽ "Shakespeare Handbook, edited by Ozu Jiro (1969, Nagundo Publishing)" ▽ "Shakespeare Dictionary, edited by Kurahashi Ken (1972, Tokyodo Publishing)" ▽ "D. Wilson The Essential Shakespeare (1932, Cambridge University Press)

Shakespeare Statue
A seated statue of the British playwright Shakespeare at his birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon, England ©Shogakukan ">

Shakespeare Statue

Shakespeare's Birthplace
It is a Tudor-style wooden house, and inside, life at that time is recreated. It is always crowded with tourists. Stratford-upon-Avon, England ©Masashi Tanaka ">

Shakespeare's Birthplace

Shakespeare's Globe Theatre
This theater is a faithful reproduction of the Globe Theater from 1599. It opened in 1997. The circular building is an open-air theater with no roof except for the stage and the auditorium. It is located in Southwark, on the south bank of the Thames. London, England ©Masashi Tanaka ">

Shakespeare's Globe Theatre

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

イギリスの詩人、劇作家。世界演劇史を通じて最大の劇作家、イギリス文学史を飾る大詩人といわれており、18世紀以来シェークスピア学という独立した学問が発展し、イギリスにおいては、あらゆる批評原理のテスト・ケースとして用いられており、イギリス劇壇にあってはシェークスピア劇は俳優の登竜門となっている。また、全世界を通じて、つねに観客から歓迎を受けている事実も驚異の的となっている。

［小津次郎］

生い立ち

イギリス・ルネサンスの頂点をなすエリザベス1世治下のイングランドの中部地方、ウォーリックシャーのストラトフォード・アポン・エイボンで、シェークスピアは生まれた。父は皮革加工業を主として、農作物や毛織物の仲買業を営んでいた。母は近在の豪農の出身であった。父は1568年には町長に選出され、シェークスピアは裕福な市民の長男として幸福な幼年時代を送り、町のグラマー・スクール（文法学校）に学んだが、彼が13歳のときに父の没落が始まり、大学へ進むことは許されなかったと思われる。18歳にして8歳年長のアン・ハサウェーAnne Hathaway（1556―1623）と結婚し、6か月後の1583年5月に長女スザンナSusanna（1583―1649）が誕生、さらに1585年2月にはハムネットHamnet（1585―1596）とジューディスJudith（1585―1662）という男女の双生児が生まれた。シェークスピアの少年時代についてはまったく記録を欠いており、演劇との結び付きも不明であるが、町の有力者の子弟として観劇の機会には恵まれていたと思われる。ロンドンに出た事情や年代についても不詳であり、近郊の豪族ルーシー家の鹿(しか)をいたずら半分に盗んだのが思いがけない醜聞となったので郷里を去ったという伝説もあるが、もとより確実な証拠はない。なんらかの理由でロンドンに出たのち劇団に加入したのか、すでに俳優として多少の経歴をもってから劇団とともに上京したのかはわからないが、ロンドンにおける俳優としての生活は1580年代の末ごろに始まっていたらしく、1592年には新進の演劇人として評判が高かったことを示す資料が残っている。

［小津次郎］

習作時代

シェークスピアの劇作活動がいつから始まったのかは不明確であるが、多くの学者は1590年ごろと推定している。おそらく最初は先輩作家の戯曲に部分的改修を加える助手的作業であったと思われるが、やがて彼自身の作品とよびうる戯曲を発表するようになった。その意味で歴史劇『ヘンリー6世』三部作（1590～1592）を彼の処女作と考えることができよう。その続編ともいうべき同じく歴史劇『リチャード3世』（1593）は、彼の生きていたエリザベス朝イギリスに至大の影響を与えたヨーク、ランカスター両家のばら戦争（1455～1585年のイギリスの内乱）の最終段階を描いたものであるが、主人公リチャード3世の創造は注目に値する。また、ローマの喜劇作家プラウトゥスからの翻案ともいうべき『まちがいの喜劇』（1593）や笑劇（ファルス）『じゃじゃ馬馴(な)らし』（1594）、当時人気の絶頂にあった流血悲劇の線に沿ったローマ史劇『タイタス・アンドロニカス』（1593）などが初期の作品群を形成している。いずれも習作であり、先輩の模倣や稚拙な部分が残ってはいるが、大作家の萌芽(ほうが)はすでにこのころ現れている。

［小津次郎］

劇壇の再編成

1592年から足掛け3年にわたって、ロンドンに流行したペストのため劇場は閉鎖された。シェークスピアはその間に2編の叙事詩『ビーナスとアドニス』（1593）、『ルークリース凌辱(りょうじょく)』（1594）をサウサンプトン伯Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton（1573―1624）に献呈してその知遇を得た。1594年に内大臣の庇護(ひご)を受けた劇団（ロード・チェンバレンズ・メンthe Lord Chamberlain's Men）が誕生し、彼は幹部座員として参加することとなった。劇場閉鎖の結果ともいうべきロンドン劇壇の大規模な再編成は、シェークスピアのような新進劇作家にとって有利な情勢をつくりだしていた。彼は終生この劇団のために戯曲を書くことになるが、最初の作品群は悲恋の運命悲劇『ロメオとジュリエット』、詩人肌で自己陶酔的な国王が数々の受難を経て悲劇の主人公に成長してゆく過程を描いた歴史劇『リチャード2世』、アテネ郊外の夜の森を舞台に幻想的な世界をつくりだしたロマンチックな喜劇『真夏の夜の夢』である。いずれも1595年ごろの作品で、叙情性が共通した特色となっているが、単に情緒的な作品ではなく、シェークスピア劇の大きな特色である人間観察の鋭さはすでに現れている。

［小津次郎］

フォルスタッフの創造

しかし人間への洞察が行き届いてくるのは次期の作品群である。1590年代の後半は主として歴史劇と喜劇を書いているが、前者の代表作は『ヘンリー4世』二部作（1598）であろう。リチャード2世から王位を奪うことによって成立したヘンリー4世治下のイギリスという陰謀と混乱の暗い時代を背景に、放蕩無頼(ほうとうぶらい)の生活を送る老騎士フォルスタッフは、ハムレットとともにシェークスピアの創造した性格のなかでもっとも興味あるものとされているが、ハル王子と手を組んでの乱行ぶりは、道徳的には非難に値するが、その絶大なる人間的魅力によって、18世紀以来ハムレットとともにシェークスピア性格論の中心となってきた。またこの時期の代表的喜劇の一つである『ベニスの商人』（1597）は、甘美な恋愛喜劇のなかに強欲なユダヤ人の金貸し業者シャイロックを登場させているが、作者は社会通念に従って彼に悪人としての運命をたどらせながら、しかも少数被圧迫民族の悲しみと憤りを強く訴えさせて、人間への温い目と公正な社会観察眼を感じさせる。

［小津次郎］

名声の確立

内大臣一座は順調な発展の道をたどってイギリス第一の劇団となり、シェークスピアの名声も確立した。1596年には長男を失うという不幸があったが、同年秋には父親のために紋章着用権を取得し、1597年にはストラトフォードの大邸宅ニュー・プレイスを購入するなど、経済的にも成功者であったことを示している。また内大臣一座の最大の弱みであった劇場問題も、多少の紆余曲折(うよきょくせつ)があったとはいえ、1599年にテムズ川南岸にグローブ劇場（グローブ座）を建設して、同劇団の常打ち劇場とすることができた。このころにシェークスピアの創作力もほとんど頂点に達したかの感がある。『お気に召すまま』（1599）は、アーデンの森を舞台に、宮廷を追われた公爵と家臣の田園牧歌的な生活を背景に、若い男女の恋愛をロマンチックに描いた喜劇で傑作の名に恥じないが、憂鬱(ゆううつ)屋のジェイクイーズを登場させて、この世界にも陰があることに言及させることを忘れてはいない。次の喜劇『十二夜』は1600年ごろの作品で、おそらくは宮廷での上演を目的として書かれたものであろう。シェークスピア最高の喜劇として評判が高い。全体としてロマンチックな香気に満ちているが、優雅な主筋と活気に富んだ脇筋(わきすじ)のみごとな調和が成功の一因をなしている。

［小津次郎］

四大悲劇の誕生

これと前後してシェークスピアはローマ史から取材した悲劇『ジュリアス・シーザー』（1599）を書いているが、これから数年を彼の「悲劇時代」とよぶ批評家もいる。『ハムレット』（1601）、『オセロ』（1604）、『リア王』（1605）、『マクベス』（1606）と並ぶいわゆる四大悲劇はこの時期に集中している。それぞれに素材も異なり、扱い方も一様ではないから、四大悲劇について総括的に語ることは不可能であるが、いずれも外見と内容、仮象と真実の食い違いに悲劇の楔(くさび)を打ち込み、真実を獲得するためには最大の代償を支払わねばならぬかにみえる人間の壮大な悲劇的世界を提出し、死との関連において人間的価値の探究を試み、世界演劇史上最高の悲劇をつくりだしている。しかしこの時期にシェークスピアが創作したのは悲劇のみではなく、『終りよければすべてよし』（1602）や『尺(しゃく)には尺を』（1604）などの喜劇もある。いずれも結末は喜劇的ではあるが、筋書きの強行による不自然な結果であり、全体として作品に暗い影がさしており、モラルについても混迷がみられるところから、「問題喜劇」という名称を与える批評家もいる。この時期の最後を飾る悲劇は『アントニーとクレオパトラ』（1607）であるが、ほぼ同じころに執筆された忘恩をテーマとした『アセンズ（アテネ）のタイモン』（1607）は、未完成ではないかと疑わせるほどに悲劇形式に対する困惑が認められる。

［小津次郎］

ロマンス劇の流行

1603年にエリザベス1世が死去し、スコットランドからジェームズ1世が迎えられると、内大臣一座は国王の庇護(ひご)を受けることとなり、国王一座（the King's Men）と改称したが、このころからイギリス演劇にも変化が生じ、観客の嗜好(しこう)も移ってきた。巨大な主人公を中心とする激しい感情の劇から、家庭悲劇、風刺喜劇、感傷的な悲喜劇、あるいはデカダンスの悲劇へと様相を転じてきた。この傾向に応ずるため国王一座は1608年、従来のグローブ座と建築様式を異にし、入場料も高く、比較的裕福な観客層を対象としたブラックフライヤーズ座を傘下に置いた。劇団のそうした経営方針とおそらく無関係ではなかったと思われるが、シェークスピアの作品も1608年ころから新しい傾向を帯びるようになる。それはロマンス劇とよばれる悲喜劇で、『冬の夜話』（1610）や、シェークスピア最後の単独作である『テンペスト（あらし）』（1611）はその代表作であるが、一家の離散に始まり再会と和解に終わる主題は、シェークスピアがかならずしも時流に従わず、彼独自の世界を展開していることを示している。

［小津次郎］

最高の韻文芸術

シェークスピアの全戯曲37編のほぼ半分は彼の生前に出版された。また、創作年代不明の『ソネット集』も1609年に刊行され、イギリス・ソネットの精華として高く評価されているが、自伝的要素を含む可能性もあり、興味の尽きない作品である。戯曲全集は彼の死後1623年に、かつての俳優仲間ジョン・ヘミングJohn Heminge（1556―1630）とヘンリー・コンデルHenry Condell（？―1627）の編集によって刊行されたが、一般に「ファースト・フォリオFirst Folio」と呼び習わされている。シェークスピアは晩年の数年間は郷里で家族とともに過ごしたと思われるが、満52歳をもって死去した。死没の日は4月23日であるが、誕生日も4月23日前後と推定されるので、この日がシェークスピアの記念日とされている。彼の芸術は演劇という媒体を通じて人間内面の世界をほとんど極限まで追求したものであるが、最高の詩的表現に満ちた韻文が主体であることも大きな特色となっている。

［小津次郎］

日本への影響

日本へは明治初期に紹介され、いくつかの翻案が行われたが、翻訳としては坪内逍遙(つぼうちしょうよう)による『ジュリアス・シーザー』の訳『自由太刀余波鋭鋒(じゆうのたちなごりのきれあじ)』（1884・明治17）が刊行されたのが最初である。逍遙は1906年（明治39）に文芸協会を設立し、シェークスピア上演に意欲を燃やしたが、協会の解散によってこの機運も消え、その後はときに好演もあったが、シェークスピア上演は概して低調であった。しかし第二次世界大戦後は福田恆存(ふくだつねあり)の訳ならびに演出による劇団「雲」の公演活動によってふたたび活発化し、小田島雄志(おだしまゆうし)（1930―　）の新しい現代語訳が刊行され、出口典雄(でぐちのりお)（1940―2020）の主宰する劇団「シェイクスピアシアター」は全作品を上演するなど、いまやシェークスピアは日本の読者、観客にとって身近な存在となった。また学者や愛好家を中心として1929年（昭和4）に設立された「日本シェイクスピア協会」は、純然たる学術団体として1961年（昭和36）に再組織され、英文による研究論文年刊誌『シェークスピア・スタディーズ』刊行などの研究活動を行っている。

［小津次郎］

『坪内逍遙訳『新修シェイクスピア全集』全40巻（1933～1935・中央公論社）』▽『福田恆存訳『シェイクスピア全集』全15巻（1959～1967・新潮社）』▽『福原麟太郎・中野好夫監修『シェイクスピア全集』全8巻（1967～1974・筑摩書房）』▽『小田島雄志訳『シェイクスピア全集』全7巻（1973～75・白水社）』▽『斎藤勇著『シェイクスピア研究』（1949・研究社出版）』▽『小津次郎編『シェイクスピア・ハンドブック』（1969・南雲堂）』▽『倉橋健編『シェイクスピア辞典』（1972・東京堂出版）』▽『D. WilsonThe Essential Shakespeare (1932, Cambridge University Press)』