Public enterprise

Japanese: 公企業 - こうきぎょう（英語表記）public enterprise

A company owned (invested) by the state or a local public entity. It is contrasted with a private company owned by private citizens. Public-private joint ventures (mixed enterprises) exist between the two, but public enterprises are sometimes broadly understood to include public-private joint ventures. In a capitalist economy, private enterprises are the rule, but the reasons for the existence of public enterprises are as follows: (1) public enterprises operate businesses that have a strong public nature and are not suitable for profit-making private enterprises (water, postal services, transportation, etc.), (2) public enterprises monopolize certain businesses (tobacco, alcohol, etc.) to generate financial revenue for the state or local public entity (monopoly), and (3) public enterprises operate businesses necessary for implementing economic and social policies (construction and operation of roads, housing supply, small and medium-sized business financing, etc.). However, none of these reasons are absolute requirements, and they are interpreted and operated quite flexibly depending on the political and economic situation and the passage of time. As a result, the specific forms of public enterprises are diverse and full of change. Therefore, rather than simply listing them haphazardly, it is important to organize them systematically and elucidate the logic behind the changes.

[Mitsuo Morimoto]

Diversity of public enterprises

The prototype of the public enterprise form is a business (production activities in a broad sense) run by an administrative organization. This has generally been called an operational business or government business. Typical examples of this before World War II were the national railway business run by the Ministry of Railways, the postal, telegraph and telephone business run by the Ministry of Communications, and the monopoly, printing and minting businesses run by the Ministry of Finance. Below, I will divide the changes in Japan's public enterprise form into three periods: (1) the World War II period, (2) the economic recovery and growth period, and (3) the post-bubble period.

During World War II, the main forms of public enterprises were public corporations, Teito Rapid Transit Corporations, treasuries, and control associations, in addition to operating companies. Of these, the public corporations were an embryonic form in Manchukuo, while the Control Association was an industry organization for carrying out a controlled economy, and both disappeared with the defeat of the war. The Teito Rapid Transit Corporation, such as the Housing Corporation, Teito Rapid Transit Corporation (Tokyo's Teito Subway), Agricultural Land Development Corporation, and Food Corporation, were special corporations established by special laws to carry out national policy projects, while treasuries, such as the Central Bank for Commerce and Industry, the Central Bank for Industrial Cooperatives, and the People's Bank, were special corporations established by special laws to carry out national policy financial projects.

During the period of economic recovery and growth, Japan's public enterprises underwent a great transformation and development. The currently operating national railways (Ministry of Transport), telegraphs and telephones (Ministry of Telecommunications), and monopolies (Ministry of Finance Monopoly Bureau) each became independent public enterprises (public corporations), and together with the five current enterprises of postal service (Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications), printing (Ministry of Finance Printing Bureau), mint (Ministry of Finance Mint Bureau), national forests (Forestry Agency), and alcohol monopoly (Ministry of International Trade and Industry), they were lumped together as the three public corporations and five current enterprises, forming a representative form of public enterprise. Public corporations are organizations that carry out public works in the form of publicly owned corporations that are not based on stocks. All of the Teito corporations, except for the Teito Subway, were reformed or abolished, and many new public corporations and business corporations were established. Public corporations were publicly owned corporate bodies for the purpose of improving social capital (Japan Highway Public Corporation, Japan Housing Corporation, etc.), and those with specialized and limited businesses were made into business corporations (Japan Space Development Agency, etc.). Banks for policy-based financing continued to exist in the form of financial institutions (such as the Central Bank of Japan), but new types of public corporations were established for specialized and limited financing (such as the Japan Finance Corporation for National Life). In addition, local public enterprises were established as independent accounting systems for the operational businesses (waterworks, transportation, etc.) of local governments.

In the post-bubble period, moves to respond to the global trend towards privatization began to take shape. Of the three public corporations, the Japanese National Railways was split into six passenger railway companies and JR Freight, which became a government joint-stock company, and the shares of the three passenger railway companies, JR East, JR Central, and JR West, were sold to the private sector and completely privatized. Similarly, the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation and the Japan Tobacco and Salt Public Corporation were also privatized, becoming Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (NTT) and Japan Tobacco Inc. (JT).

The only remaining Teitan subway company was the Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., which was funded by the government and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Reforms were also made in the operating companies, public corporations, business corporations, and public funds, and most of them became "Independent Administrative Institutions".

Independent administrative corporations are a new type of corporation that aims to thoroughly separate itself from administrative organizations and to further increase the efficiency of public corporations, etc. As a result, national hospitals, universities, museums, etc. have become independent public enterprises.

[Mitsuo Morimoto]

Principles of transformation and development of public enterprises

Underlying the transformation of public enterprises is a consistent logic necessary for public enterprises to adapt to socio-economic conditions. This can be said to be the principle of public enterprise development. The core of this lies in how to overcome the defects inherent in purely administrative management (operational business, government business), which is the prototype of public enterprises, that make it incompatible with business management, while maintaining the public nature of the business. The non-business defects inherent in purely administrative management are inefficiency, incompetence, and a lack of economic awareness, and their roots lie in administrative, financial, and political constraints. Therefore, reforms will be carried out in the direction of removing administrative, financial, and political constraints, in other words, increasing management autonomy, while paying attention to ensuring the public nature of the enterprise in terms of corporate governance.

First, financial constraints are clearly manifested in the single-year budget system that restricts business continuity and the government accounting system that lacks cost consciousness. This has led to the adoption of special accounts and efforts to achieve self-supporting accounting through corporate accounting methods. This is nothing less than autonomy in terms of accounting, finance, and calculation. Local public enterprises and operational operations under special accounts are typical examples of this product. Public enterprises at this stage are called non-dependent public enterprises.

The constraints of administration are most clearly manifested in bureaucratic organizations and personnel management. Therefore, non-subordinate enterprises are being reformed by adopting organizations with legal personality independent of administrative organizations and personnel systems separate from civil servants. These are called independent public enterprises, and are broadly divided into those established by special legislation and joint-stock companies (government companies) established by general law. The former make up the majority of major public enterprises. Specific forms include public corporations, public agencies, business corporations, and independent administrative agencies.

Even for independent public enterprises, corporate governance, particularly with regard to management personnel and business strategy, remains strongly subject to public political control. The basis for this is the public nature of the business. If this public control is made formal and nominal and management autonomy is substantially increased, the enterprise will become an autonomous public enterprise. In Japan, there have been almost no examples at this stage, both in the past and present.

Another approach to reforming independent public enterprises is to privatize them, turning them into private companies, particularly corporations, and leaving the assurance of their public nature to the systems and methods of monitoring and supervision used by ordinary private enterprises.

Administrative organizations are not originally intended for business purposes. Just as the separation of ownership (investment) and management gave private enterprises autonomy, which in turn promoted the sophistication of enterprises, the progress of public enterprises is based on the basic principle of separation of finance and management, administration and management, and politics and management. Public enterprises that have achieved managerial autonomy through such separation remain public enterprises in terms of formal ownership, but in terms of actual management, there is no real difference between them and private enterprises that have become so developed that they must assume social responsibility. This is called the principle of approximation between public and private enterprises. If this principle is emphasized, it will be possible to ensure efficiency as well as publicness even through privatization.

[Mitsuo Morimoto]

"The Trajectory of Modern Japanese Public Enterprises: The Conflict and Fusion of Public and Private Interests" by Mori Tsuneo (1992, Minerva Shobo)" ▽ "Economic Policy and Public Enterprises" by Akazawa Shozo (1992, Tax Accounting Association)" ▽ "An Introduction to Public Enterprises" by Yamamoto Masakazu (1995, Chikura Shobo)" ▽ "The Latest Contemporary Corporate Theory" edited by Masuchi Akio and Sasaki Hiroshi (2001, Yachiyo Publishing)" ▽ "The History of Japanese Public Enterprises" by Murakami Ryota (2001, Minerva Shobo)" ▽ "New Business Management Library 5: Corporate Form Theory" 3rd Edition by Komatsu Akira (2006, Shinseisha, Science Publishing)" ▽ "The Establishment and Development of Public Enterprises: Teito, Kodan, and Kosho during the War and Postwar Reconstruction Periods" by Uozumi Hirohisa (2009, Iwanami Shoten)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

国または地方公共団体が所有（出資）する企業。民間人が所有する私企業と対照される。両者の中間的存在として公私合同（混合）企業があるが、公企業を広義に理解して、公私合同企業をも含めることがある。資本主義経済では、私企業が原則であるが、それにもかかわらず公企業が存在する理由としては、(1)公共的性格が強く営利的私企業になじまない事業（水道、郵便、交通等）を公企業として経営する、(2)国または地方公共団体の財政収入を図るため、特定の事業（たばこ、アルコール等）を独占して公企業とする（専売）、(3)経済・社会政策を遂行するに必要な事業（道路の建設・運営、住宅供給、中小企業金融等）を公企業として経営する、の三つがあげられてきた。しかし、これらの理由はいずれも絶対的な要請ではなく、政治経済的状況や時代の推移等により、かなり弾力的に解釈・運用される。そのために、公企業の具体的形態は多様かつ変化に富むものになる。そこでそれらを雑然と羅列するのではなく、体系的に整理したり変化の論理を解明したりすることが重要になる。

［森本三男］

公企業形態の多様性

公企業形態の原型は、行政組織によって事業（広義の生産活動）を営むものである。これは一般に現業とか官業とよばれてきた。第二次世界大戦前の鉄道省の国有鉄道事業、逓信省(ていしんしょう)の郵便・電信電話事業、大蔵省の専売・印刷・造幣事業等は、この典型であった。以下、日本の公企業形態の変遷を、(1)第二次世界大戦期、(2)経済復興・成長期、(3)バブル以降期、に三分してみる。

　第二次世界大戦期の主要公企業形態は、現業のほか、公社、営団、金庫、統制会があった。これらのうち公社は満州国における萌芽(ほうが)的形態であり、統制会は統制経済遂行のための業界組織であるため、ともに敗戦によって消滅した。住宅営団、帝都高速度交通営団（東京の営団地下鉄）、農地開発営団、食糧営団等の営団は、国策事業遂行のための特別法による特殊法人であり、商工組合中央金庫、産業組合中央金庫、庶民金庫等の金庫は、国策金融事業遂行のための特別法による特殊法人であった。

　経済復興・成長期に、日本の公企業は大きく変貌(へんぼう)しかつ発展する。現業の国有鉄道（運輸省）・電信電話（電気通信省）・専売（大蔵省専売局）は、それぞれ独立公企業の公社（公共企業体）となり、郵便（郵政省）・印刷（大蔵省印刷局）・造幣（同造幣局）・国有林野（林野庁）・アルコール専売（通商産業省）の五現業とともに、三公社五現業と一括されて代表的公企業形態となった。公社は、株式によらない公共所有の法人形態による公共的事業の遂行組織である。営団地下鉄を除く営団はすべて改廃され、新たに多くの公団と事業団が新設された。公団は社会資本の充実のための公共所有の法人形態（日本道路公団、日本住宅公団等）であり、その事業が特殊で限定的なものが事業団とされた（宇宙開発事業団等）。政策金融のための金庫は形態としては存続したが（商工組合中央金庫等）、事業が特殊で限定的な金融のために公庫の形態が新設された（国民生活金融公庫等）。また地方公共団体による現業（水道、交通等）を独立採算制度とする地方公営企業が新設された。

　バブル以降期になると、世界的な民営化傾向に対応する動きが具体化する。三公社のうち日本国有鉄道は、JR旅客鉄道6社とJR貨物に分割されて政府株式会社になり、さらにJR東日本・東海・西日本の3旅客鉄道会社の株式は民間に売却されて完全に民営化された。同様にして日本電信電話公社と日本専売公社も民営化され、日本電信電話株式会社（NTT）と日本たばこ産業株式会社（JT）になった。

　唯一の営団として残っていた営団地下鉄は、政府と東京都の出資する東京地下鉄株式会社（東京メトロ）になった。現業、公団、事業団、公庫についても改革が進み、そのほとんどは「独立行政法人○○機構」となった。

　独立行政法人とは、現業の行政組織からの徹底した分離と公団等のいっそうの効率化を目ざす新種の法人である。これにより、国立の病院、大学、博物館等も独立公企業となった。

［森本三男］

公企業の変容・発展の原理

公企業の変容の底流には、公企業が社会経済的に適合するために必要な一貫した論理がある。これは公企業発展の原理といえるものである。その核心は、公企業の原型である純行政経営（現業、官業）につきまとう、事業の経営になじまない欠陥の克服と、事業のもつ公共的性格をいかに両立させるかにある。純行政経営につきまとう非事業的欠陥とは、非効率・非能率・経済性意識の欠落であり、その根源は行政・財政・政治の制約である。そこで、企業統治の面で公共的性格の確保に留意しつつ、行政・財政・政治の制約を除去し、換言すれば経営の自主性を高める方向に改革が進められることになる。

　まず財政の制約は、事業の継続を拘束する単年度主義とコスト意識のない官庁会計方式に端的に現れる。そこで、特別会計の採用、企業会計方式による独立採算が図られる。それは、会計・財務・計算面の自主化にほかならない。特別会計による現業や地方公営企業は、この所産の典型である。この段階の公企業を、非従属的公企業と称する。

　行政の制約は、官僚制的組織と人事に端的に現れる。そこで、行政組織から独立した法人格をもつ組織と公務員とは別の人事システムを採用することにより、非従属的企業の改革が行われる。これを独立公企業と称するが、それは特別立法によるものと、一般法による株式会社（政府会社）に大別される。前者は、主要公企業の大半で主流を占める。公社、公団、事業団、独立行政法人等が、その具体的形態である。

　独立公企業にあっても、その企業統治、とくに経営者人事や経営戦略については、なお政治による公的支配がかなり強く残されている。その根拠は、事業の公共的性格にある。この公的支配を形式化・名目化して経営の自主性を実質的に高めれば、自主的公企業になる。日本の実例では、この段階のものは過去・現在ともほとんど存在しない。

　独立公企業の改革のもう一つの道は、民営化（民有化、私有化）して私企業、とくに株式会社とし、公共性の確保は一般私企業の監視・監督の制度と方法にゆだねることである。

　行政組織は、本来、事業のためのものではない。所有（出資）と経営の分離によって私企業の自主化が行われ、それによって企業の高度化が推進されたように、公企業の進歩は、財政と経営の分離、行政と経営の分離、政治と経営の分離を基本原理としている。このような分離によって経営上の自主性を獲得した公企業は、形式的な所有については依然として公企業であるが、経営の実態については、高度に発展したために社会的責任を負わねばならなくなった私企業と、実質上の差異がなくなっていく。これを公私企業接近の原理という。この原理を重視すれば、民営化によっても効率性とともに公共性が確保できることになる。

［森本三男］

『森恒夫著『現代日本型公企業の軌跡　公益と私益の対立と融合』（1992・ミネルヴァ書房）』▽『赤沢昭三著『経済政策と公企業』（1992・税務経理協会）』▽『山本政一著『公企業要論』（1995・千倉書房）』▽『増地昭男・佐々木弘編『最新・現代企業論』（2001・八千代出版）』▽『村上了太著『日本公企業史』（2001・ミネルヴァ書房）』▽『小松章著『新経営学ライブラリ5　企業形態論』第3版（2006・新世社、サイエンス社発売）』▽『魚住弘久著『公企業の成立と展開――戦時期・戦後復興期の営団・公団・公社』（2009・岩波書店）』