Interest rate - Kinri (English spelling) rate of interest

Japanese: 金利 - きんり(英語表記)rate of interest
Interest rate - Kinri (English spelling) rate of interest

Interest rates are monetary interest rates, which are the prices of loanable funds traded in financial markets. Interest rates bring the demand for loanable funds and the supply of loanable funds into equilibrium. This is illustrated in Figure A. The suppliers of loanable funds, for example, households, refrain from current consumption and save the money (future consumption), and receive a certain reward (measured by interest rates) for this, so the supply curve of loanable funds slopes upwards relative to interest rates. On the other hand, the demanders of loanable funds, for example, companies, act to increase their plants and equipment by borrowing loanable funds, thereby earning greater profits. Therefore, as interest rates rise, it becomes unprofitable, so the demand curve for loanable funds slopes downwards relative to interest rates. The supply and demand of loanable funds are balanced at the intersection of the demand curve for loanable funds and the supply curve for loanable funds, that is, at the interest rate level E in Figure A. Thinking about it in this way, because interest rates reflect household savings behavior and corporate investment behavior, we can say that interest rates act as a link connecting the real sector and the financial sector in the economic system.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

The function of interest rates

As described above, interest rates balance the supply and demand of loanable funds, but they also perform two other basic functions. The first is to efficiently allocate loanable funds to each sector of the economy. If the interest rate is determined at point E in Figure A , all of the most efficient demanders of funds will be able to borrow loanable funds, and at that level, suppliers of loanable funds will earn the greatest profits. The second is the economic adjustment function of interest rates. When the economy improves and demand for loanable funds increases, the interest rate level rises. However, once it reaches a certain level, demanders of loanable funds will no longer be profitable, and the demand will begin to decrease. The same is true for suppliers of loanable funds, so fluctuations in interest rates adjust economic fluctuations.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Determinants of interest rates

In Figure A, the demand and supply of loanable funds determine the interest rate level, but J.M. Keynes explains that the interest rate is determined at a level that balances the demand for money and the supply of money. In other words, since interest rates are considered to be a reward for giving up the liquidity, which is an important characteristic of money, Figure B is established. People's demand for money is caused by its function as a medium of exchange and by its function of being held as an asset. As for the latter, people try to hold assets in the form of money even though there are financial assets (such as bonds) that bear interest, because money has the characteristic of being liquid. Therefore, interest rates are a reward for giving up the liquidity of money and holding other financial assets that bear interest. Also, as shown in Figure B , the demand curve for money as an asset has a downward sloping character with respect to interest rates. If we assume that the money supply is constant, the amount of money demanded for daily transactions (which arises from its function as a medium of exchange) is determined by the level of income, so the amount of money demanded for daily transactions (which arises from its function as a medium of exchange) minus the total money supply is the amount of money supplied as an asset ( S in Figure B ). The interest rate is determined at the intersection point ( E in Figure B ) between the money demand curve and the level of money supply as an asset. Keynes also mentioned that if interest rates fall to a certain level, the demand for money may become infinite. This phenomenon is generally called a liquidity trap, and it is thought to arise when people dislike the risk of holding bonds because a fall in interest rates means an increase in bond prices, and they strongly prefer money as a safe asset. A liquidity trap is a state in which the aforementioned function of interest rates to adjust the economy is lost, and it has once again attracted attention as a concept that explains the sluggishness of the Japanese economy since the 1990s.

In reality, people hold financial assets in two forms: money and financial assets that bear interest. The ratio of these is determined by the level of interest that financial assets bear. It is important how much of money and financial assets that bear interest people hold. This is because financial assets that bear interest become the supply of loanable funds. Therefore, the ratio of money and financial assets that bear interest people hold affects the demand for money in the money market and the supply of loanable funds in the loanable funds market. As already shown in Figures A and B , each market has its own mechanism for determining interest rates, so the interest rate is ultimately determined at the point where a general equilibrium that satisfies the equilibrium conditions of both markets is established. This can be illustrated as in Figure C , and the idea that interest rates are determined by the general equilibrium of both markets is called the loanable funds theory. The loanable funds theory is said to be the most influential theory of interest rate determination today. The loanable funds theory is based on the idea that behind the equilibrium in the loanable funds market there exists an equilibrium between the supply of loanable funds, i.e. savings, and the demand for loanable funds, i.e. investment (or investment + budget deficit), and includes the equilibrium condition for the real sector, i.e. the equality of savings and investment. In an economic system, the level of real income is determined when savings and investment are equal, so the loanable funds theory explains the determination of interest rates through general equilibrium, which includes the equilibrium in the real world.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Real interest rate

The interest rates mentioned so far are nominal interest rates. The nominal interest rates that are actually established in the market are not real interest rates for those who demand or supply loanable funds. To simplify, if a person saves at an annual interest rate of 5%, the interest rate that he or she effectively receives is 2%, assuming that the inflation rate during that time is 3%. The situation is the same for those who demand funds, so the real interest rate is the nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate. The market ultimately determines the nominal interest rate by taking into account the expected inflation rate, but when unexpected inflation occurs, the real interest rate can become extremely small in the short term. In addition, during a recession when there is a shortage of demand and the price level continues to fall, that is, during deflation, the real interest rate is theoretically higher than the nominal interest rate. Therefore, it can be said that the reason why the economy is not improving despite the large fall in nominal interest rates is because the real interest rate has risen due to deflation. In the early 2000s, when deflation was becoming more serious, economists both in Japan and overseas were calling for the Bank of Japan to introduce inflation targeting (a policy to set a price stability target). This line of thinking was the theoretical backbone behind such calls. In any case, it can be said that it is extremely important to distinguish between nominal and real interest rates.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Types of interest rates

So far, we have been assuming that there is only one loanable funds market and only one interest rate established there. However, in reality, a wide variety of financial assets are traded in the loanable funds market. Therefore, it can be thought that a market is established for each financial asset traded, and a different interest rate is established. Broadly speaking, there are long-term interest rates, which indicate the rate of return on long-term financial assets with a maturity of one year or more, and short-term interest rates, which indicate the rate of return on short-term financial assets with a maturity of less than one year. Furthermore, long-term interest rates include long-term lending rates and public bond yields, while short-term interest rates include deposit interest rates, short-term lending rates, and call rates.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Japanese interest rates

In Japan, the system has prevented the free formation of interest rates in the sense described above. In particular, the Temporary Interest Rate Adjustment Act enacted in 1947 (Showa 22) after the Second World War regulated the upper limit of deposit interest rates, and under the artificially low interest rate policy adopted during the period of high economic growth, various interest rates other than the call rate were artificially regulated to levels lower than the prevailing interest rate under the guidance of the official discount rate. However, since the 1970s, as the Japanese economy entered a mature stage after achieving steady growth, and as globalization progressed, interest rate regulations moved in the direction of easing. As a result, deposit interest rates were completely liberalized by October 1994 (Heisei 6). With the completion of interest rate liberalization, the institutional link between the official discount rate and deposit interest rates that was seen in the regulated interest rate era disappeared, and the official discount rate no longer had any meaning as a policy interest rate, as the Bank of Japan's policy tool was changed to the unsecured call rate (overnight). In addition, from August 2006, the name of the "official discount rate" was changed to "basic discount rate and basic lending rate."

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

"Modern Economics 6: Finance" by Tate Ryuichiro and Hamada Koichi (1972, Iwanami Shoten)""Financial Theory" by Horiuchi Akiyoshi (1990, University of Tokyo Press)""The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money by J.M. Keynes, translated by Shionoya Yuichi, Popular Edition (1995, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Modern Economic Research Series 19: Zero Interest Rates and the Japanese Economy" edited by Fukao Mitsuhiro and Yoshikawa Hiroshi (2000, Nihon Keizai Inc.)""Issues and Issues in Macroeconomic Policy" edited by Yoshikawa Hiroshi and the Editorial Committee of the Research Institute of International Trade and Industry (2000, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Essential Economics Series: Finance" 2nd Edition by Kaizuka Hiroaki, Okumura Hirohiko and Shuto Megumi (2002, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Japan's Financial System" by Yoshiaki Shikano, 2nd Edition (2006, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Financial Reader Series: Financial Reader" by Bunji Wu, Takayoshi Shimamura, and Masashi Nakajima, 26th Edition (2007, Toyo Keizai Inc.)" ▽ "Modern Monetary Policy: Theory and Practice" by Masaaki Shirakawa (2008, Nihon Keizai Shimbun Publishing)""Knowledge of Interest Rates" by Kunio Okina, New Edition (Nikkei Bunko)"

[References] | Finance | Financial markets | Interest rate liberalization | Interest rate policy | Interest rate system | Keynes | Yield
Relationship between interest rates and loan amount (Figure A)
©Shogakukan ">

Relationship between interest rates and loan amount (Figure A)

Relationship between interest rates and the amount of money as an asset (Figure B)
©Shogakukan ">

Relationship between interest rates and the amount of money as an asset (Figure B)

Determination of interest rates (loanable funds theory) [Figure C]
©Shogakukan ">

Determination of interest rates (loanable funds theory) [Figure C]


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

金利は貨幣利子率のことであり、それは金融市場において取引される貸付資金の価格を意味する。金利の働きによって、貸付資金に対する需要と貸付資金の供給が均衡する。これを図示すると、図Aのとおりである。貸付資金の供給者、たとえば家計は、現在の消費を差し控えてその分を貯蓄(将来の消費)し、これに対して一定の報酬(金利で測られる)を得ることとなるので、貸付資金の供給曲線は金利に対して右上がりの性格をもつ。他方、貸付資金の需要者、たとえば企業は、貸付資金を借り入れることによってプラントや設備を増加させ、より大きな利潤を獲得するような行動をとる。したがって、金利が高くなると採算があわなくなるから、貸付資金に対する需要曲線は金利に対して右下がりの性格をもつ。そして貸付資金に対する需要曲線と貸付資金の供給曲線の交点、すなわち図AEという金利水準で貸付資金の需給が均衡することとなる。このように考えてくると、家計の貯蓄行動と企業の投資行動が金利に反映するから、金利は経済システムにおける実物部門と金融部門を結び付ける鎖の役割を果たしているといえる。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

金利の機能

以上のように、金利は貸付資金の需給を均衡させる働きをもっているが、そのほかになお二つの基本的機能を果たしている。第一は、貸付資金を経済の各部門に効率的に配分するという機能である。図AE点で金利が決定されれば、もっとも効率性の高い資金の需要者はすべて貸付資金の借入が可能となり、その水準で貸付資金の供給者は最大の利益を得ることとなるのである。第二は、金利の景気調整機能である。景気が上昇して貸付資金に対する需要が増大すると、金利水準が上昇する。しかしそれが一定の高さにまで達すると、貸付資金の需要者は採算があわなくなり、需要量は減少に転ずる。同じことは貸付資金の供給者にもいえるから、金利が変動することによって景気変動が調節されることとなる。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

金利の決定要因

図Aでは貸付資金の需要と供給とが金利水準を決定するとしたが、J・M・ケインズは、貨幣に対する需要と貨幣供給とを均衡させる水準で金利が決定されると説明する。すなわち、金利は貨幣のもっている重要な性格である流動性を放棄することに対する報酬であると考えるから、図Bが成立する。人々の貨幣に対する需要には、貨幣の交換手段の機能から発生するものと、貨幣が資産として保有されるという機能から発生するものとがある。後者については、人々は金利のつく金融資産(たとえば債券)があるのにもかかわらず、資産を貨幣で保有しようとするのは、貨幣が流動性という特徴をもつからである。したがって金利は、貨幣のもつ流動性を放棄して、他の金利のつく金融資産を保有することへの報酬となるのである。また、図Bのごとく、資産としての貨幣に対する需要曲線は金利について右下がりの性格をもつこととなる。いま貨幣供給量を一定とすると、日常の取引のために需要される貨幣量(交換手段としての機能から発生したもの)は所得の大きさによって決まるので、全体の貨幣供給量からその分を差し引いたものが資産としての貨幣の供給量となる(図BS)。そして貨幣需要曲線と資産としての貨幣供給水準との交点(図BE)の水準で金利が決定されることとなる。なお、金利が一定の水準にまで下がってしまうと貨幣に対する需要が無限大になる可能性が生じることも、ケインズは言及している。一般に流動性のわなliquidity trapとよばれる現象であり、これは利子率の低下は債券価格の上昇を意味するので、人々が債券を保有することのリスクを嫌い、安全資産としての貨幣を強く選好しようとすることから生まれると考える。流動性のわなは、先述した金利の景気調整機能が喪失された状態であり、1990年代以降の日本経済の低迷を説明する概念として、ふたたび注目されている。

 ところで、人々は現実に金融資産を、貨幣と金利のつく金融資産という二つの形で保有するのであるが、その割合は、金融資産がいかなる水準の金利をつけるかによって決められよう。人々が貨幣と金利のつく金融資産のいずれをどれだけ保有するかは重要な意味をもっている。というのは、金利のつく金融資産で保有された分は貸付資金の供給となるからである。したがって、人々の貨幣と金利のつく金融資産の保有割合は、貨幣市場での貨幣需要と貸付資金市場での貸付資金の供給とに影響を及ぼす。すでに、図A図Bで示したように、両市場はそれぞれ金利を決定する仕組みを示しているので、結局、両市場の均衡条件をともに満足させる一般均衡が成立するところで金利が決定されることとなる。これは図Cのように図示でき、このような両市場の一般均衡で金利が決定されるとする考え方を貸付資金説とよぶ。貸付資金説が金利決定理論としては今日もっとも有力なものといわれている。貸付資金説は、貸付資金市場の均衡の背後に、貸付資金の供給すなわち貯蓄と、貸付資金に対する需要すなわち投資(または投資+財政赤字)との均衡が存在するという考え方にたつもので、貯蓄と投資の一致という実物部門の均衡条件が含まれている。そして経済システムにおいては貯蓄と投資の等しいところで実質所得の水準が決まるから、貸付資金説はこのような実物面の均衡までを含んだ一般均衡によって金利水準の決定を説明しているのである。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

実質金利

これまで述べてきた金利は名目金利を意味する。現実に市場で成立する名目金利は、貸付資金の需要者、供給者にとって実質的金利とはいえない。単純化して考えると、年間5%の金利で貯蓄した人が実質的に受け取る金利は、いまその間のインフレ率を3%とすると、2%になる。資金の需要者にとっても事情は同じであるから、名目金利からインフレ率を差し引いたものが実質金利となる。市場では究極的に期待インフレ率を考慮して名目金利を決定するが、予期しえないインフレが発生したときなどは、実質金利がきわめて小さくなることも短期的には生ずる。なお、需要不足の状態にある不況期において物価水準が継続的に下がる、すなわちデフレーションのときでは、理論上、実質金利は名目金利以上の水準になる。したがって、名目金利が大きく低下しているにもかかわらず、景気が上向かないのはデフレーションによって実質金利が高くなっているためという見方ができる。デフレーションが深刻化していた2000年代初め、内外の経済学者からインフレ・ターゲティング(物価安定数値目標政策)の導入を日本銀行に求める声が高まっていたのも、このような考え方が理論的なバックボーンをなしていた。いずれにせよ、名目金利と実質金利を区別することは非常に重要なことであるといえる。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

金利の種類

これまでは貸付資金市場も一つ、そこで成立する金利も一つと前提して議論してきた。しかし貸付資金市場で取引される金融資産は現実には多種多様である。したがって、取引される金融資産ごとに市場が成立し、異なった金利が成立すると考えることができる。大別すると、満期が1年以上の長期の金融資産の収益率を示す長期金利と、満期が1年未満の短期の金融資産の収益率を示す短期金利とがある。さらに長期金利には、長期貸出金利や公社債の利回りなどが、また短期金利には、預金金利、短期貸出金利、コールレートなどが含まれている。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

日本の金利

日本では制度上、これまで述べてきたような意味での金利水準の自由な形成が妨げられてきた。とくに第二次世界大戦後の1947年(昭和22)に制定された「臨時金利調整法」は預金金利の上限を規制することとしたし、高度成長期にとられた人為的低金利政策のもとでは、公定歩合の誘導のもとにコールレートを除く各種の金利は人為的に実勢金利よりも低い水準に規制された。しかし、1970年代以降、日本経済が右肩上がりの成長を実現した時期から成熟段階に入り、また、グローバル化が進んでいく過程で、金利規制は緩和される方向に動いていった。その結果、預金金利は1994年(平成6)10月までに完全自由化を遂げるに至った。金利自由化の完了で、規制金利時代にみられた公定歩合と預貯金金利の制度的な連動性がなくなり、また日本銀行の政策手段が無担保コールレート(オーバーナイト物)へ転換したことから、公定歩合の政策金利としての意味合いはなくなった。なお、2006年8月から「公定歩合」は「基準割引率および基準貸付利率」に名称を変更している。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

『館龍一郎・浜田宏一著『現代経済学 6 金融』(1972・岩波書店)』『堀内昭義著『金融論』(1990・東京大学出版会)』『J・M・ケインズ著、塩野谷祐一訳『雇用・利子および貨幣の一般理論』普及版(1995・東洋経済新報社)』『深尾光洋・吉川洋編『シリーズ・現代経済研究 19 ゼロ金利と日本経済』(2000・日本経済新聞社)』『吉川洋・通商産業研究所編集委員会編著『マクロ経済政策の課題と争点』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『貝塚啓明・奥村洋彦・首藤恵著『エッセンシャル経済学シリーズ 金融』第2版(2002・東洋経済新報社)』『鹿野嘉昭著『日本の金融制度』第2版(2006・東洋経済新報社)』『呉文二・島村高嘉・中島真志著『読本シリーズ 金融読本』第26版(2007・東洋経済新報社)』『白川方明著『現代の金融政策――理論と実際』(2008・日本経済新聞出版社)』『翁邦雄著『金利の知識』新版(日経文庫)』

[参照項目] | 金融 | 金融市場 | 金利自由化 | 金利政策 | 金利体系 | ケインズ | 利回り
金利と貸付資金量の関係〔図A〕
©Shogakukan">

金利と貸付資金量の関係〔図A〕

金利と資産としての貨幣量の関係〔図B〕
©Shogakukan">

金利と資産としての貨幣量の関係〔図B〕

金利の決定(貸付資金説)〔図C〕
©Shogakukan">

金利の決定(貸付資金説)〔図C〕


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