Fishery - Gyogyo

Japanese: 漁業 - ぎょぎょう

Fisheries is an extractive industry whose main production target is aquatic plants and animals that regenerate autonomously in natural ecosystems, and in a broad sense includes aquaculture, which cultivates, propagates and farms aquatic plants and animals.

Although the terms "fishing" and "fisheries" are sometimes used synonymously, the latter is generally used as a general term that includes the harvesting, propagation and cultivation of marine resources, as well as manufacturing, processing and distribution. This section focuses on the historical development of fishing, and the "fisheries" section focuses on the current state of the fishing industry, including fishing.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

Characteristics of fishery production

Natural conditions such as the topography, water currents, and water temperature of the ocean floor, rivers, and lakes vary from place to place on Earth. Therefore, the aquatic ecosystem is not the same for each water area, and the types and quantities of fishery resources also differ. Even in the same water area, natural conditions such as water temperature and ocean currents change with the seasons, and most fish species adapt biologically to these changes and migrate or move, although their ranges differ. Fishing is different in the nature of production from agriculture, forestry, and livestock farming, which are also classified as primary industries, in that fishing is mainly directed at aquatic plants and animals that carry out such natural life processes. While the primitive production activities of hunting and gathering on land have developed into livestock farming and agriculture and forestry, which are industries in which humans manage and cultivate the plants and animals that are the subject of production, fishing is an industry that is fundamentally based on hunting and gathering production. The difference between fishing and agriculture, forestry, and livestock farming is, first of all, that in fishing, the marine resources that inhabit the vast ocean have been considered to be abundant and inexhaustible. Secondly, there are technical difficulties in controlling the enormous natural forces of the ocean to create an environment suitable for the reproduction and growth of certain fish species, and the use of the ocean as a ranch for fishery resources will depend on the development of ocean and fish management technologies. Thirdly, until the late 1970s, the vast oceans other than the territorial waters of each country were considered high seas, not belonging to any country, and basically people were free to engage in fishing.

As is clear from the above, the characteristics of fishery production are, firstly, that it is largely determined by the state of fishery resources, which is a manifestation of the abundance of nature. Even if the same labor means and methods, such as fishing nets and boats, are used, the catch varies depending on the water area, and even in the same water area, the state of fishery resources varies due to natural fluctuations, and the catch varies from year to year. Secondly, in fishery production, fishing grounds and fishing seasons are also determined by the ecology and habits of the aquatic plants and animals and the natural conditions. The animals that are the subject of aquatic production migrate and move seasonally in search of suitable temperatures and water areas for spawning and feeding. The fishing grounds, which are the place of fishery production, change seasonally and daily depending on the conditions in which fish schools gather or migrate and move. Furthermore, the water areas where they migrate and move also change from year to year due to changes in the strength and flow of the tides. In addition, there are constraints due to the weather. For example, it is difficult to go fishing during seasons when bad weather continues, and the operating period is limited in the Southern Ocean and the North Ocean. Thus, the industrial characteristics of the fishing industry are that catches fluctuate, production is unstable, and therefore production activities are irregular and subject to seasonal constraints. From the perspective of fishing labor, compared to industrial labor in general, labor fluctuates irregularly depending on the daily fishing patterns, there are large seasonal peaks and troughs, and work at sea is easily affected by the weather, and there is a high risk of accidents at sea and during operation. From the perspective of fishing management, the instability of production and the risk of accidents at sea destabilize management. In addition, competition between fishing managements over the priority seizure of marine resources, which are ownerless property that do not belong to anyone, tends to become excessive, resulting in overfishing of the target marine resources and a deterioration of management. Conversely, management that discovers superior fishing methods and fishing grounds can earn high profits. Therefore, improvements to fishing gear, fishing boats, and fishing methods have been accumulated over the years with the aim of ensuring production and increasing catches, and since the modern era, industrial development has revolutionized the means of fishing production and brought about a dramatic increase in catches.

Modern fishing methods can also be broadly divided into net fishing and lining fishing, depending on the ecology of the fish. Net fishing is mainly divided into (1) seine fishing (a fishing method that drags a net to catch bottom fish such as cod, flounder, and turbot that live on the seabed and do not migrate or move over a wide area. Trawl nets and bottom drag nets are used), (2) purse seine fishing (a fishing method that surrounds pelagic fish such as sardines, mackerel, and horse mackerel that migrate in schools on the surface and middle layers of the sea with a net. Purse nets and aguri nets are used), (3) gill net fishing (a net is stretched and salmon, trout, etc. that are caught in the mesh are caught), and (4) fixed net fishing (a fence net is fixed in a certain place and salmon, yellowtail, etc. are guided into a bag net to catch them). As for fishing methods, longlines, which are long ropes with hooks attached at regular intervals, are used for tuna, which migrate in wide waters, while pole fishing is used for skipjack, which migrate in schools but have the ability to swim quickly. However, depending on the experience and traditions of fishermen around the world who are dealing with complex natural conditions such as the state of the seabed, ocean currents, and fishways, various fishing methods have been developed even for the same species of fish. As for fishing methods, seine fishing and purse seine fishing have high fishing capacity, and in recent years, skipjack and tuna have also been caught with purse seine, and the majority of catches in developed countries are made by these net fishing methods. This increase in fishing capacity has revealed the limits of marine resources that were previously thought to be infinite, which has led to international and domestic adjustments in fishing and the development of aquaculture and aquaculture techniques.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

Development of fisheries production

From the primitive age to the modern age

As evidenced by shell mounds and lowland ruins, people have been gathering and fishing fish, shellfish, and algae that grow in rivers, lakes, and beaches for food and as living tools since prehistoric times. However, it is believed that fishing did not become an important means of acquiring food until the Mesolithic period after the Paleolithic period in Europe, and in Japan during the Jomon period. The shellfish that make up Japan's shell mounds vary by region and era, but are diverse, including clams, Japanese oysters, and cockles, and shell mounds mainly composed of corbicula have been found at river mouths. Bones of many kinds of fish, including sea bass, black porgy, red sea bream, tuna, and sharks, as well as dolphin and sea lion bones, have been excavated from shell mounds and lowland ruins, and it is believed that people began to use almost all of the coastal marine resources that we eat today during the Jomon period. Fishing equipment and methods used included bows and arrows, spears, harpoons, hooks, and nets, and materials used for fishing equipment other than nets included stones, deer antlers, animal and fish bones, bamboo, wood, etc. Plant fibers are thought to have been used for the nets, but it is not clear what type of fishing nets were used.

Fishing gear and methods developed gradually throughout the ancient and medieval periods. Hooks and harpoons made from bone and horn were replaced by iron ones, the range of activities using boats to collect fish, shellfish, and algae expanded, and processing and preservation techniques such as salting and drying were invented, but fishing nets were still not fully developed. However, by the end of the Middle Ages in Japan, beach seine nets had become widely used, and in some areas hand-held nets were used. The nets were thought to have been made from kudzu, wisteria, and straw ropes.

In the early modern period, fishing developed rapidly. With the establishment of the Edo Shogunate, fishing started in various parts of the Kanto coast, and from the mid-Edo period onwards fishing also flourished along the coasts of Tohoku and Hokkaido. The factors behind this development of fishing were not only the demand for fish and shellfish as food in castle towns and other cities, but also the growing agricultural demand for fish to be used as fertiliser. These demands combined to encourage the commercialisation of fish. A fish market was opened in Nihonbashi, Edo, in 1610 (Keicho 15) with permission from the Shogunate, and fish wholesalers were established in Kyoto, Osaka and other areas. Dried sardines and dried herring were used as fertiliser, and the development of large-scale beach seine nets, set nets and fixed nets such as daibou nets was promoted for catching them. As for the material of nets, from the mid-Edo period onwards, thin and strong hemp thread began to be used for various nets and fixed bag nets, replacing straw ropes. Elaborate fishing nets adapted to the habits of the target fish were invented in various regions, and the number of types of fishing nets increased. In the second half of the 17th century, whaling using the net-catching method emerged and prospered, and in terms of processing, a method for making dried bonito flakes known as tosa-bushi was invented, and the pole-and-line fishing of bonito also became popular. Additionally, the cultivation of oysters and nori seaweed using Hibi began in Hiroshima Bay and Asakusa in Edo. It was also during this period that marine products, including three products - dried sea cucumber, dried abalone, and shark fin - began to be exported from Nagasaki to China. However, this development in the fishing industry also gave rise to conflicts over the use of fishing grounds among fishing villages and fishermen across the country. In 1742 (Kanpo 2), the shogunate issued an edict setting forth the principles of ocean surface use, stating that fish, shellfish, and seaweed in the seashore and seaweed-related areas were the property of local fishing villages, and that offshore fishing was free for local use. However, as fishing methods and the fishing industry developed, conflicts continued to arise. In the midst of this, the Japanese fishing industry achieved a level of productivity development that reached the limit of coastal fishing using small, unpowered fishing boats by the end of the Edo period.

Fishing has developed in various ways around the world since the Mesolithic period, and descriptions of fishing and net fishing can already be found in the Old Testament. The shape of the net is unclear, but it is believed to have been a small beach seine net made of hemp. Fishing became popular in Europe from the beginning of the early modern period, and herring fishing was one of the main fisheries. Hemp drift gillnets were used for herring fishing, and the market expanded with the development of processing techniques such as salting, smoking, and pickling, and the size of fishing boats and fishing nets gradually increased. Cod fishing using longlines also became popular, and cod was salted and dried to expand sales channels, and trawl fishing using sailing ships also became widespread from the late 18th century.

In addition, against the backdrop of the Age of Discovery and the development of fishing in the Baltic and North Seas, the Dutchman Grotius published "De Liber nave" in 1609, in which he advocated the principle of freedom of the high seas. He defined the high seas as the area outside the territorial waters considered to be a nation's territory, and allowed freedom of navigation, fishing, and other uses of the waters there. This principle was advantageous to major powers such as the United Kingdom, and historically became the basis of the order for maritime uses until the late 1970s.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

Development of modern fishing

As the Industrial Revolution progressed, fishing production also made great strides. First, the development of fishing increased the demand for fishing nets, which were the main production tool. In 1778, a patent for a net weaving machine was obtained in the UK, but it was not until 1835 that a practical net weaving machine was developed. This mechanization was based on the development of the modern cotton industry, and the material was changed from hemp to cotton. Flexible and sophisticated cotton nets greatly improved fishing capacity and promoted the commercialization of fishing nets. To use large-scale fishing nets, fishing boats also had to be made larger. However, in the herring fishery in Scotland in the 18th century and even in the first half of the 19th century, fishing boats had to be pulled up to the beach because fishing port facilities were not in place. This not only restricted the size of fishing boats, but also made it impossible to go out to sea if the weather was even slightly bad during the short herring fishing season. In addition, in ports where large fishing boats could enter, the increase in the number of fishing boats meant that they had to wait a long time to land their catch. The improvement of fishing ports, which serve as nodes for fishery production and distribution, was key to the development of the fishing industry. In the 19th century, fishing port improvements were made throughout Europe, mainly with subsidies from national and local governments, and sometimes with investments from fishing-related parties and railway operators.

Along with the use of cotton nets, another innovation in fishing production was the motorization of fishing boats and their subsequent larger size. Steamboat trawling was first attempted in England in 1878, and quickly spread to other European countries. The motorization, increased horsepower, and larger size of fishing boats made it possible to go to distant seas, and by the end of the 19th century, some boats were sailing for up to three weeks. To prevent the catch from spoiling on such long voyages, a large amount of ice was needed, and it was the development of ice-making technology that made this possible. Trawling involves pulling a funnel-shaped bag net with a boat to catch fish, but long logs are used to open the net mouth, and the size of the net is limited by the length of the logs. The otter trawl, which improved the net mouth, was attempted in England in 1885, and improvements were made in other countries, with a Danish ship achieving success in 1895. This made it possible to make larger nets, and at the same time, a hauling machine was developed to pull the net up using steamboat power, establishing mechanized mass production technology in trawling. For fish such as sardines that migrate in schools, the purse seine fishing method, in which a large net is used to surround the school of fish and catch them, was developed in the United States. Furthermore, at the start of the 20th century, diesel engines began to be used to power fishing boats, replacing steam engines that required large amounts of coal, which increased the capacity of fish holds to store the catch, and fishing boats also began to be equipped with refrigeration facilities, making it even more possible to go out to distant fishing grounds.

One of the factors that led to the development and spread of large-scale fishing was the expansion of railway networks in Europe and the United States in the 19th century, and the expansion of inland markets due to the development of refrigeration and freezing technology. On the other hand, large-scale fishing led to a decline in marine resources, as was particularly evident in the North Sea, and forced each country to take on the task of international fisheries adjustment.

In Europe and the United States, whaling and marine mammal hunting of sea otters and fur seals also developed. Whaling was a fishing method in which whaling boats were loaded onto a 300-400-ton sailing ship as a mother ship, and if a whale was spotted, the boats would approach and shoot it. The target was sperm whales, which have a lot of fat that floats on the surface of the water even after being killed, and the blubber of the shot whales was harvested on the mother ship. At the end of the Edo period, American and Russian fishing boats began to appear in the waters near Japan in pursuit of whales and marine mammals. In response to this fishing method, the Norwegian whaling method was developed in 1864. This method involves shooting a harpoon attached to a line at the whale with a whaling gun, killing it. This made it possible to capture whales that sank into the sea after being shot, and it rapidly became popular from the late 1870s.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

Modern and contemporary Japanese fishing

Since the Meiji Restoration, Japan's fishing industry has seen improvements in fishing nets and gear, the motorization of fishing boats, and the expansion of fishing grounds from offshore to the deep sea. Although production temporarily declined due to the effects of World War II and restrictions on fishing areas under the occupation, it has once again achieved new development since 1950.

Japan's fishing industry entered a period of rapid growth in the 40th year of the Meiji era (around 1910). From this period, catch volumes consistently increased, from around 1.5 million tons in the Meiji era to the 2 million tons range in the Taisho era, the 3 million tons range at the beginning of the Showa era, and the 4 million tons range in the 1930s, but production declined during and immediately after the war. From the 1950s onwards, the fishing industry recovered and achieved new development, reaching the 10 million tons range in 1972.

The technical conditions that supported the development of fisheries production before World War II were generally the progress of industrialization from the mid-Meiji period onwards, and especially in relation to fisheries, the creation of the industrial foundations for production such as oil engines, cotton fishing nets and steam engines, the development of shipbuilding, and the expansion and improvement of transportation networks such as railways and shipping, which expanded the domestic market. In the fishing sector, first, the motorization of fishing boats using oil engines, second, the shift from hemp to cotton fishing nets, and third, the introduction of new fishing methods from Europe and the US such as trawling and whaling, and the development of fishing techniques that combine motorized fishing boats and seine nets, such as motorized bottom trawling. Historical factors that promoted fishing production include, first, the various policies of the Meiji government aimed at promoting the fishing industry, especially the dissemination of new knowledge and new technologies from both inside and outside Japan through fisheries expositions, the development of new technologies and new fishing grounds by fisheries training institutes and fisheries research stations, and the promotion of new fishing methods and motorized fishing boats through the Deep Sea Fisheries Promotion Law (promulgated in 1897). Secondly, fishermen themselves had a strong desire to go out to sea and into the distant ocean, as exemplified by the pole-and-line fishing method for skipjack tuna. Thirdly, the fishing grounds and resource conditions were available in Japan's coastal, offshore and distant ocean waters. The existence of wide-ranging fishing grounds, from the North Pacific to the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, was a major factor in the development of the fishing industry. The use of these distant ocean fishing grounds is based on the principle of freedom of the high seas, but historically this was due to the expansion of Japan's overseas territories and interests through the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars and World War I.

Fishing for skipjack began in 1905 (Meiji 38) using fishing boats powered by oil engines, and steam trawling was attempted in the same year. In 1919 (Taisho 8), diesel engines were put to trial use, and by the beginning of the Showa era, trawlers equipped with wireless telegraphy and refrigeration equipment were built. In 1921, crab factory fishing, which used the North Pacific Ocean near Kamchatka as a fishing ground and produced canned crab on board, was commercialized, and salmon and trout fishing developed in earnest in the 1930s. Norwegian-style coastal whaling began in 1899 (Meiji 32), and by 1939 (Showa 14), a fleet of whaling ships was sailing to the Southern Ocean. It was in 1918 that the state began subsidizing the construction of fishing ports. In this way, Japan's fishing industry before World War II not only caught up with Europe and the United States, but also grew to surpass them.

After the war, the industry continued to develop in a new way, based on the prewar developments and responding to the development of the heavy chemical industry. Instead of cotton nets, strong, light and rot-resistant synthetic fiber nets were put into practical use, fish finders, navigational satellites were used to measure ship positions, automated navigation, quick-freezing facilities, trawlers equipped with frozen fish paste equipment, and fishing ground information was transmitted by fishing satellites. Fishing was operated by fishing boats that could be described as complexes of various machines and equipment using the latest technology, and fishing grounds expanded from the entire Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. However, the formation of a new maritime order in the late 1970s, with the establishment of a global 200-nautical-mile economic zone, put an end to the development of deep-sea fishing.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

Fisheries System

The increase in fishing productivity, which has developed based on modern industrial production and allows for large-scale catches, has led to catches that exceed the reproductive capacity of fisheries that would be naturally reproduced in developed fishing grounds, leading to the decline and depletion of fishery resources. Most fishery resources are natural objects that do not belong to anyone and are ownerless, and they can only be owned by being caught. Therefore, when fishing grounds are on the high seas, there is fierce competition for first access to ownerless property. As a result, new technologies spread rapidly, leading to excessive capital investment competition, accelerating the decline and depletion of fishery resources, while at the same time making it difficult to increase catches to match the increasing operating costs, worsening economic profitability. Therefore, a system is needed to protect and manage fishery resources and regulate and adjust operations among fishermen. The history of the development of modern fishing is also the history of the development of the fishery adjustment system.

As trawl fishing became more popular in Europe, the issue of regulating it arose. In 1800, a petition was filed in the Netherlands to ban trawl fishing on the grounds that it was harmful to fish reproduction. In France, trawl fishing was banned in Toulon Bay for 12 years from 1818, and in 1853, the length of fish that could be caught and sold was set by law. In the UK, the Sea Fisheries Regulation Acts were promulgated in 1887, and the decline in the catch per fishing boat and the smaller size of fish in fishing grounds, mainly in the North Sea, became an issue, and in 1902, an international conference on marine development was held by 14 surrounding countries to focus on trawl fishing. As for marine mammal hunting, in 1891, the UK and the US banned their nationals from hunting fur seals in the eastern Bering Sea, and in 1993, Russia also established a no-hunting zone around fur seal breeding grounds and within 10 nautical miles of Russian coastal waters.

In Japan, the Fisheries Law was promulgated in 1901 (Meiji 34), which stipulated who had the right to occupy and use coastal fishing grounds and how they should be used. However, when trawl fishing began, serious conflicts arose between coastal fishermen and trawl fishers, and in 1909 the Steamship Trawl Fishing Control Regulations were enacted, which established prohibited areas. The rapid development of mechanized bottom trawl fishing during the Taisho period devastated coastal fishing grounds and caused violent clashes with coastal fishermen, and as a result, the Mechanized Bottom Trawl Fishing Control Regulations were enacted in 1921 (Taisho 10), which designated certain coastal waters as prohibited areas and required permission from the governor to operate. However, violations continued, and in 1929 (Showa 4), coastal fishermen in Kochi Prefecture stormed into the prefectural office demanding the complete abolition of bottom trawl fishing. The regulations were revised and strengthened in 1930 and 1932, and bottom trawl fishing became a fishery that required permission from the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry.

After the Second World War, Japan's fishing system was regulated by the Fisheries Law, which was promulgated in 1949 (Showa 24) after abolishing the Meiji Fisheries Law. This law aims to maintain order in fishing activities and fishing grounds and to protect marine resources. It establishes fishing rights in coastal waters, which are the right to fish using designated fishing gear and fishing methods, and requires permission from the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries or the prefectural governor for fishing of migratory fish. The total number of vessels or tonnage, as well as no-fishing areas and no-fishing seasons, are regulated for offshore and deep-sea fishing, such as salmon and trout drift net fishing, whaling, tuna longline fishing, trawl and bottom trawl fishing, and purse seine fishing. However, despite the implementation of the permission system, the increase in fishing productivity has caused the deterioration of resource conditions and business conditions in some industries, and adjustments such as reducing the number of vessels and changing industries have been repeated. Furthermore, the development of new aquaculture and propagation techniques is changing the way coastal waters are used, making a review of the fishing rights system also an issue.

[Ryuzo Takayama]

International Fisheries Adjustment and the New Maritime Order

In order to prevent the decline and depletion of fishery resources caused by the free access of fishing boats from each country to fishing grounds on the high seas, the countries concerned have concluded treaties and agreements on joint resource surveys, restrictions on total catches, quotas for each country, etc. These arrangements were especially necessary in the areas where large trawlers from developed countries have been used. There are more than 20 major international organizations based on fisheries treaties, and their effects extend to almost all sea areas. Some of these organizations were established as regional organizations of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) based on the FAO Charter, and their main activities are surveys, research, and distribution of information. Other treaties, such as the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, enacted in 1946, are not limited to resource surveys and research, but also have strong regulatory powers, such as stipulating whale species to be preserved, fishing seasons, prohibited areas, body length limits, and catch limits. With the pressure of the anti-whaling movement that had been gathering momentum since the 1970s in the United States and the United Kingdom, the species and numbers of whales that could be caught were reduced year by year, and Japan's whaling industry was forced to decline. Furthermore, of the 36 member countries of this treaty, only two countries, Japan and the Soviet Union, were engaged in whaling until 1986, and before the majority vote to completely ban whaling, Japan was also forced to withdraw from its whaling industry, which has a history dating back to the early modern period.

As of 2003, Japan has concluded 26 treaties and agreements, including the Convention for the Conservation of North Pacific Salmon and Trout, the Bering High Seas Fisheries Convention, the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Convention, and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, as well as private fisheries agreements with the Federated States of Micronesia and Nauru. Some of these treaties and agreements, such as the aforementioned Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, were concluded before the establishment of the 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone, but many were revised in response to its establishment. For the operation of foreign fishing vessels within the 200-nautical-mile economic zone, provisions are included such as regulations on fishing areas and fishing seasons, restrictions on the number of fishing vessels, catch volume, and species, collection of fishing fees, penalties for violations, and the boarding of inspectors during fishing operations.

The background to the establishment of the 200-mile exclusive zone was the undercurrent of developing countries' resentment and rising nationalism towards the operation of modern fishing boats from developed countries in the waters surrounding developing countries, which uphold the principle of freedom of the high seas. At the same time, however, the catalyst for this was a declaration made by US President Truman in 1945, in which the US asserted its sovereignty over the resources of its continental shelf. Following this declaration, Mexico issued declarations on jurisdiction over the continental shelf in the same year, followed by Panama and Argentina in 1946, and furthermore, some South American countries began to make declarations of sovereignty. At the 22nd UN General Assembly in 1967, the representative of Malta appealed for the necessity of an international order regarding the use of the seabed, on the grounds that the resources of the seabed are the common property of mankind, which prompted the establishment of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1973. As this conference progressed, developing countries began to assert permanent sovereignty over natural resources in the ocean, and there was a growing trend to make the waters within 200 nautical miles of each country the exclusive economic zone of the coastal states.

In April 1976, the United States passed the Fisheries Conservation and Management Act, which came into effect in 1977. The European Community (EC) also declared a 200-nautical-mile economic zone, which it implemented in 1977, and the Soviet Union also established a 200-nautical-mile zone in December 1976. Japan also established a 200-nautical-mile fishing zone in July 1977, and other major countries around the world established 200-nautical-mile zones one after another in the late 1970s, establishing a new system of division and order of use of the oceans. In 1980, the United States passed the American Fisheries Promotion Act, known as the Brough Act, and further amended the Brough Act in 1982, making it its basic policy to promote and strengthen the optimal use of marine resources by its own fishing boats and to exclude foreign fishing boats from fishing. With the establishment of this 200 nautical miles system, countries that have relied on 200 nautical miles of foreign fishing for operation of leopard fishing in Japan have been forced to reduce leopard fishing boats due to catch restrictions, and the entry fees increased, causing them to be in a difficult position for management. Looking at the changes in entrance fees at this time, the entry fees and other factors that Japan pays to the United States from 1.6 billion yen in 1977 to 8.6 billion yen in 1983, and the cost of fishing cooperation for entering Soviet waters reached 4.25 billion yen in 1983. This is the end of the era of productive power development, in which fish production is developed through the development and use of leopard fishing grounds, and an era of exploring rational use of fisheries within its 200 nautical miles of its own country.

[Takayama Ryuzo]

"The History of Fisheries Technology in the Early Meiji Period" (1959, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science)" ▽ "Okamoto Kiyozo, Fisheries Economics (1961, Koseisha, Koseikaku)" ▽ "The Theory of Modern Fisheries Economics" (1982, Hokuto Publishing)" ▽ "Ono Seiichiro, Fisheries Economy under the 200 Nautical Mile System" (1999, Agriculture and Forestry Statistics Association)" ▽ "Kawasaki Ken, Fisheries Resources" (2000, Seizando Bookstore)"

[Reference Item] | Fisheries | Whaling

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

漁業は、自然の生態系のなかで自律的に更新される水界の動植物を主として生産の対象とする採取産業であって、広義には、水界動植物を栽培、増殖、養殖する増養殖業を含んでいる。

　漁業と水産業は同義的に用いられる場合もあるが、一般的には後者は、水産資源の採取、増養殖に、製造、加工、流通を含めたものの総称として、用いられる。本項においては、漁業の歴史的展開を中心に記述し、「水産業」の項で漁業を含む水産業の現況を中心に記述する。

［高山隆三］

漁業生産の特徴

海底・河川・湖沼の地形、水流、水温等の自然諸条件は地球上の地点によって異なっている。したがって水域ごとに水界の生態系も同一ではなく、水産資源の種類と量も異なってくる。また同一の水域であっても、季節によって、水温、海流等の自然条件は変化し、その変化に生物的に適応して、大部分の魚類は、それぞれ範囲を異にはするものの、回遊・移動する。漁業は、このような自然の生命過程を営む水界動植物を主として生産の対象とするという点で、同じく第一次産業に分類されている農林業や牧畜業とは、生産の性格を異にしている。陸上での原始的な狩猟や採取という生産活動は、生産の対象となる動植物を人間が管理し育成する産業である牧畜業、農林業へと発展してきたのに対し、漁業は狩猟的、採取的生産を基本的な性格とする産業である。このような農林業、牧畜業との相違は、第一に、漁業では、広大な海洋に生息する水産資源が豊富で無尽蔵であるとみなされてきたこと。第二に、海洋の巨大な自然諸力を特定の魚類の繁殖、成長に適した環境に改造し、制御することに技術的な困難さがあり、海洋を水産資源の牧場のように利用することは、なお海洋、魚類の管理技術の発達にまたなければならないこと。第三に、1970年代後半に至るまで、各国の領海を除く広大な海洋が公海としてどの国にも属さず、基本的には自由に漁業を営むことができたこと、などの点に由来している。

　以上のことから明らかなように、漁業生産の特徴は、第一に、自然の豊かさの現れである水産資源の状況に大きく規定されることである。漁獲のための網や船など同一の労働手段と労働方法を用いても、水域によって漁獲量は異なり、また同一の水域でも、自然の変動によって水産資源の状況が異なり、漁獲量が年々変動するのである。第二に、漁業生産では、漁場、漁期が、水界の動植物の生態、習性と自然条件によっても規定されることである。水界の生産の対象となる動物は産卵や索餌(さくじ)のため、適温や適した水域を求めて季節的に回遊、移動する。漁業生産の場である漁場は、魚群が群生し、あるいは回遊、移動する状況に応じて、季節的に、また日々に変化する。さらに、回遊、移動する水域も、潮流の強さやその流れが変化することによって、年々変化する。それに加えて天候による制約がある。たとえば悪天候が続く季節には出漁が困難であり、南氷洋や北洋などでは操業期間が限定されている。このように漁業の産業的特徴は、漁獲量に変動があって、生産が不安定であり、したがって生産活動が不規則となり、また季節的な制約をもつことである。これを漁業労働の側からみると、工業労働一般に比べて、日々の漁の模様によって労働が不規則に変動し、季節的な繁閑が大きく、さらに海上における労働は、天候の影響を受けやすく、海難事故や操業中の事故の危険性が高いことを特徴とする。漁業経営の側面からみると、生産の不安定性や海難事故の危険性は経営を不安定にする。また、だれにも属さない無主物である水産資源の先取をめぐって漁業経営間の競争は過度になりやすく、その結果、対象水産資源の乱獲を導き、経営を悪化させる傾向がみられる。逆に、優等な漁法、漁場を発見した経営には高い利潤が獲得される。したがって、確実な生産と漁獲の増大を目的として、漁具、漁船、漁法の改良が長年にわたって積み重ねられてきており、近代以降では工業の発展が漁業生産手段を革新し、漁獲量の飛躍的増大をもたらしたのである。

　現代の漁法も魚類の生態に対応して網漁法と釣り漁法に大別される。網漁法には主として（1）引網漁法（海底に生息し、広範囲には回遊、移動しないタラ・カレイ・ヒラメ等の底魚(そこうお)類を網を引き回して漁獲する漁法。トロール網、底引網等を用いる）、（2）巻網漁法（海の表層・中層を群をなして回遊するイワシ・サバ・アジ等の浮魚(うきうお)を網で取り囲んで漁獲する漁法。巾着(きんちゃく)網、揚繰(あぐり)網を用いる）、（3）刺網漁法（網を張って網目にかかるサケ・マス等をとる）、（4）定置網漁法（一定の場所に垣網を固定し袋網にサケ・ブリ等を誘導して漁獲する）がある。釣り漁法としては、広水域を回遊するマグロには長いロープに鉤(つりばり)を一定間隔でつけた延縄(はえなわ)が、また群れをつくって回遊するが速泳力をもつカツオに対しては竿(さお)釣り漁法がある。しかし、海底の状況、海流、魚道のあり方等々、複雑な自然条件に対する世界各地域の漁業者の経験と伝統によって、同一魚種に対しても種々の漁法が開発されてきた。漁法としては引網漁法と巻網漁法が漁獲能力が高く、近年ではカツオ・マグロも巻網で漁獲されるようになり、先進国の漁獲の大部分がこれら網漁業によるものとなっている。この漁獲能力の上昇は、無限とみられてきた水産資源の限界を明らかにし、このことから国際的、国内的に漁業調整が図られ、増・養殖技術の開発も進められることになったのである。

［高山隆三］

漁業生産の発展

原始より近世

河川、湖沼や海浜に生息繁茂する魚貝藻類を採取、漁獲して食用および生活用具として用いる活動は、貝塚や低地遺跡等から明らかにされるように、原始時代から営まれていた。しかし、漁労が食糧獲得の重要な手段となるのは、ヨーロッパでも旧石器時代後の中石器時代に入ってからのことであるとみられ、日本においても縄文時代になってからといわれる。日本の貝塚を構成する貝類も、地域、年代により異なるが、ハマグリ、アサリ、カキ、ハイガイなど多様であり、河口などではシジミ主体の貝塚も発見されている。貝塚や低地遺跡からはスズキ、クロダイ、マダイ、マグロ、サメなど多種の魚骨やイルカ、アシカの骨も出土しており、縄文時代に、今日われわれが食用とする沿岸性の水産資源のほとんどの種類を利用するに至ったとみられる。漁具、漁法としては、弓矢、やす、銛(もり)、鉤(つりばり)、網が用いられ、網以外の漁具の素材は、石、シカの角、獣・魚骨、竹・木などであった。網の素材には植物繊維が用いられたものとみられるが、どのような漁網が用いられたかは明らかではない。

　古代・中世にかけて漁具、漁法の発展が徐々に遂げられてくる。骨角製の鉤、銛から鉄製のそれに変わり、舟を利用した魚貝藻類の採取活動の範囲は広がり、塩蔵、乾燥等の加工、保存技術もくふうされてくるが、なお漁網の発達は十分ではなかった。しかし、日本では中世末には地引網が広く使用されるようになり、地域によっては手繰(てぐり)網が用いられてきた。網の素材は葛(かずら)、藤(ふじ)、藁縄(わらなわ)であったとみられる。

　近世に入ると漁業は急速な発達をみた。江戸幕府の成立によって関東の沿岸各地に漁業がおこり、江戸中期以降には東北、北海道沿岸の漁業も盛んになった。こうした漁業の発達の要因としては、城下町など都市における魚貝類の食料としての需要ばかりではなく、魚類を肥料として用いるという農業面からの需要が増大したこともあげられる。これらの需要が相まって魚類の商品化を促したのである。魚市場(うおいちば)が江戸の日本橋に幕府の許可を得て開設されるのが1610年（慶長15）であり、魚問屋は京都・大坂をはじめ各地に成立してくる。肥料には干鰯(ほしか)、干鰊(にしん)等が用いられ、これの漁獲のために大規模な地引網あるいは敷網、大謀(だいぼう)網などの定置網の発達が促された。網の素材も、江戸中期以降には藁縄にかわって細くて強い麻糸が各種の網や定置の袋網に使用されるようになった。対象魚類の習性に応じた精巧な漁網が各地で考案され、漁網の種類も増加した。17世紀後半には網取り法による捕鯨業がおこって盛況を呈してゆき、加工面でも土佐節とよばれるかつお節の製法が考案され、カツオ一本釣り漁業も盛んになった。またひびを用いたカキやノリの養殖が広島湾、江戸の浅草で始まった。乾海参(ほしいりこ)、乾鮑(ほしあわび)、鱶鰭(ふかひれ)の3品をはじめ水産物の清(しん)国への輸出が、長崎から行われるようになったのもこの時代であった。このような漁業の発展は、一方で各地の漁村や漁業者間で漁場利用をめぐる紛争を引き起こした。幕府は1742年（寛保2）に、磯付根付(いそつきねつき)の魚貝藻類は地元漁村の占有とし、沖合いでの操業は勝手とする海面利用の原則となる御触書(おふれがき)を出すが、これによっても漁法、漁業の発展につれて紛争は後を断たなかった。こうしたなかで日本漁業は幕末には、無動力の小型漁船を使用する沿岸漁業としては限界に達する生産力的発展を遂げたのである。

　漁業は世界各地で中石器時代以降多様な発展を遂げてきたが、すでに『旧約聖書』にも釣りおよび網漁業の記述がみいだされる。その網の形状は明らかではないが、素材としては麻が用いられており、小型の地引網であったとみられている。ヨーロッパにおいて漁業が盛んになるのは近世初頭からで、その主要な漁業の一つはニシン漁業であった。ニシン漁には麻製の流し刺網が用いられ、塩蔵、薫製、酢漬けなどの加工技術の発展によって市場が拡大され、漁船、漁網の規模も徐々に大きくなっていく。延縄によるタラ漁も盛んになり、タラは塩蔵、乾燥加工されて販路を拡大し、また18世紀後半から帆船によるトロール漁業も広まってくる。

　なおオランダのグロティウスは、大航海時代を迎え、またバルト海、北海における漁業の発展を背景にして、1609年『海洋自由論』を公刊して、公海自由の原則を唱えた。一国の領土とみなされる領海の範囲外を公海と規定して、そこにおける航海、漁業等海面利用を自由としたのである。この原則はイギリスをはじめとする大国にとって有利な理論であり、歴史的には1970年代後半までの海洋利用秩序の基本となった。

［高山隆三］

近代漁業の展開

産業革命の進展につれて、漁業生産も飛躍的な発展を遂げてくる。まず漁業の発展は、その主要な生産用具である漁網の需要を増大させた。1778年にイギリスで編網機械の特許が取得されたが、実用に耐えうる編網機が開発されるのは1835年のことである。この機械化は近代綿工業の発展を基礎とするものであり、素材も麻から綿へと転換した。しなやかで精巧な綿網は漁獲能力を大きく向上させ、漁網の商品化を促進した。規模の大きな漁網を用いるには漁船も大型化しなければならない。しかし、18世紀、また19世紀前半においてもスコットランドのニシン漁業では、漁港施設が整っていなかったために、漁船を浜に引き揚げなければならなかった。それによって漁船の大型化が制約されたばかりか、短いニシン漁期に、少しでも天候が悪いと出漁することさえできなかったのである。また、大型漁船の入港しうる港では、漁船数の増加から、漁獲物水揚げに長時間待たなければならない状態であった。漁業生産と流通の結節点の役割を果たす漁港の修築は水産業発展の鍵(かぎ)であった。19世紀には、おもに政府・地方自治体からの補助金によって、ときには漁業関連者、鉄道業者等の出資によって漁港修築がヨーロッパ各地で進められてくるのである。

　綿網の使用と並んで漁業生産を革新したのが漁船の動力化とそれによる大型化である。汽船トロール漁業が最初に試みられたのは1878年イギリスにおいてであり、これはヨーロッパ各国に急速に普及した。漁船の動力化、高馬力化、大型化は遠洋出漁を可能とし、19世紀末には航海日数が3週間に及ぶものが現れた。この長期の航海において漁獲物の腐敗を防ぐには大量の氷を必要とするが、それを可能としたのは製氷技術の開発であった。トロール漁法は漏斗(ろうと)状の袋網を船で引いて漁獲するものであるが、網口を開くには長い丸太を用いており、そのような網では丸太の長さによって網の大きさも制限されることになる。その網口を改良したオッタートロールは1885年にイギリスで試みられ、その改良が各国で進められ、1895年にデンマーク船で成功を収めた。これにより網の大規模化が可能となると同時に、その網を汽船動力を用いて引き揚げる揚網機も開発され、トロール漁業における機械化大量生産技術が確立する。群をつくって回遊するイワシ等の魚類に対しては、大きな網で魚群を取り囲んで漁獲する旋網漁法がアメリカで発展した。さらに20世紀に入ると、漁船動力には、大量の石炭を搭載しなければならない蒸気機関にかわって、ディーゼル機関が用いられるようになり、漁獲物を収納する魚倉の容積が増大し、また漁船にも冷凍設備が備えられるようになり、遠洋漁場への出漁がいっそう可能となった。

　大量漁獲漁業の発展と普及の要因の一つとして、19世紀の欧米大陸における鉄道網の広がりと、冷凍・冷蔵技術の発展による内陸部市場の拡大があげられる。他面、大量漁獲は、北海に顕著にみられたように水産資源の減少をもたらし、各国に国際的漁業調整という課題を負わせることになった。

　欧米においては、捕鯨業やラッコ、オットセイの海獣猟も発展してきた。捕鯨は300～400トンの帆船を母船として、それに捕鯨ボートを載せ、クジラを発見すればボートで接近して銃殺するという漁法であった。殺しても海面に浮いている脂肪の多いマッコウクジラがその対象であり、銃殺したクジラを母船で採脂した。幕末にはクジラや海獣を追ってアメリカ、ロシアの漁船が日本近海に出没するようになったのである。その漁法に対し、1864年にノルウェー式捕鯨法が開発された。綱をつけた銛を捕鯨砲でクジラに撃ち込んで殺すもので、これによって、銃殺後、海中に没するクジラ類の捕獲も可能となり、1870年代後半から急速に普及したのである。

［高山隆三］

近・現代の日本漁業

明治維新以降の日本漁業は、漁網・漁具の改良、漁船の動力化を進め、沖合いから遠洋へと漁場の外延的拡大を遂げ、第二次世界大戦と占領下の漁区制限の影響を受けて一時的に生産を低下させたものの、1950年（昭和25）以降ふたたび新たな発展を実現してきた。

　日本の漁業生産が躍進の時代に入ったのは明治40年代（1910年前後）からである。この時代から漁獲量は一貫して上昇し、明治期に150万トン前後であったものが、大正期に200万トン台、昭和初頭に300万トン台、1930年代には400万トン台に達するが、戦時下・戦争直後に生産は低下した。1950年代以降、漁業は回復から新たな発展を遂げてゆき、72年には1000万トン台に達したのである。

　第二次大戦前における漁業生産の発展を支えた技術的条件は、一般的には明治中期以降の工業化の進展、とくに漁業に関連して、石油発動機、綿糸漁網と蒸気機関など生産の工業的な基礎がつくりだされたこと、造船業が発達したこと、さらに、鉄道・海運といった輸送網の拡大・整備が国内市場を広げたことがあげられる。漁業部門としては、第一に石油発動機を動力とする漁船の動力化、第二に麻から綿漁網への転換、第三にトロール、捕鯨などの新漁法の欧米からの導入と、機船底引網漁業のような動力漁船と引網を組み合わせた漁業技術の開発があげられる。また漁業生産を推進した歴史的要因としては、第一に、漁業の振興を目ざした明治政府の諸政策、とりわけ水産博覧会等による内外の水産新知識・新技術の普及、および水産講習所・水産試験場による新技術・新漁場の開発、遠洋漁業奨励法（1897年=明治30公布）による新漁業や漁船動力化の促進などがあげられる。第二に、カツオ一本釣り漁業に代表されるように沖合い・遠洋への出漁の志向を漁業者自身が強くもっていたことである。第三に、漁場的・資源的条件が日本の近海・沖合い・遠洋にあったことである。北洋から黄海、東シナ海など広域にわたる漁場の存在が漁業発展の大きな要因であった。これら遠洋漁場の利用は公海自由の原則にのっとるものであるが、歴史的には日清(にっしん)・日露の両戦争と第一次大戦を通じて日本の海外領土と権益が拡大されたという事情があずかっている。

　石油発動機を動力とする漁船でカツオ釣りが開始されたのが1905年（明治38）であり、同じ年に汽船トロール漁業も試みられ、1919年（大正8）にはディーゼル機関が試用され、昭和初頭には無線電信・冷凍装置を完備したトロール船が建造されている。カムチャツカ方面の北洋を漁場とし船上でカニ缶詰を生産する母船式蟹(かに)工船漁業が企業化されたのが1921年であり、母船式サケ・マス漁業は1930年代に本格的に発展した。ノルウェー式近海捕鯨は1899年（明治32）に発足するが、1939年（昭和14）には南氷洋に母船式捕鯨船団が出漁するまでに至った。漁港を国家が補助金を支出して修築するようになるのは1918年のことである。このように、第二次大戦前における日本漁業は、欧米に追い付くだけでなく、それを凌駕(りょうが)する成長を遂げた。

　戦後も戦前の発展を基礎にして、さらに重化学工業の発達に即応して、新たな発展をたどった。綿網にかわり、じょうぶで軽く、腐敗しにくい合成繊維網の実用化、魚群探知機、航海衛星を利用した船の位置の測定、航行の自動化、急速冷凍施設、冷凍すり身設備を備えたトロール工船、漁業衛星による漁場情報の伝達など、漁業は、最新技術を用いた諸機械装置の複合体ともいえる漁船によって操業され、漁場は太平洋全域からさらに大西洋まで拡大する。しかし、1970年代後半からの世界的な200海里経済水域の設定という新しい海洋秩序の形成は、遠洋漁業の発展に終止符を打つことになったのである。

［高山隆三］

漁業制度

近代的工業生産力を基礎として発展した大量漁獲を可能とする漁業生産力の上昇は、既開発漁場では自然的に再生産される繁殖力を上回る漁獲をもたらし、水産資源を減少・枯渇させてきた。大部分の水産資源は自然物であってだれにも属さない無主物であり、漁獲されることによって初めて所有されることになる。したがって漁場が公海である場合には、無主物に対する先取得権によって、先取をめぐって競争が激しく展開されることになる。その結果、新技術が急速に普及し、過度の設備投資競争が行われ、水産資源の減少・枯渇が加速される一方、経営費の増大に見合う漁獲をあげられず、経済的採算を悪化させる。したがって、水産資源を保護・管理して漁業者間の操業を規制・調整する制度が必要となる。近代漁業の発展史は同時に漁業調整制度の展開の歴史となったのである。

　ヨーロッパでは、トロール漁業が盛んになってくるにしたがって、これに対する規制の問題が発生した。1800年にオランダでは、トロール漁業は魚類の繁殖に有害であるとして、その禁止が政府に請願された。フランスのトゥーロン湾では1818年以降12年間にわたりトロール漁業が禁止され、1853年には漁獲し売買する魚類の体長を法律で定めた。イギリスでは1887年に海洋漁業規制法Sea Fisheries Regulation Actsが公布され、また北海を中心とする漁場における漁船1隻当り漁獲量の減少と魚体の小形化が問題となり、1902年からトロール漁業を対象として周辺14か国による国際海洋開発会議が開催されるようになった。海獣猟も、1891年に英米両国はベーリング海東部海上において両国民がオットセイ猟に従事することを禁止し、ロシアも93年オットセイ繁殖地周囲とロシア領沿海10海里以内を禁猟区とした。

　日本では沿岸漁場の占有利用権の主体と利用方法を定めた漁業法が1901年（明治34）に公布されるが、トロール漁業が開始されると、まもなく沿岸漁業者との間に深刻な紛争が発生し、1909年汽船トロール漁業取締規則が制定されて禁止区域を定めた。また大正期の機船底引網漁業の急速な進展は沿岸漁場を荒廃させて、沿岸漁業者との間に激しい衡突を引き起こし、このため沿岸の一定海面を禁止区域と定め、操業には知事の許可を受けなければならないという機船底引網漁業取締規則が1921年（大正10）に制定された。しかし、その後も違反は絶えず、1929年（昭和4）には高知県で沿岸漁民が底引全廃を求めて県庁に押しかけるという事件まで起こるに至って、1930年、1932年と取締規則が改正強化され、底引網漁業は農林大臣の許可漁業となった。

　第二次大戦後のわが国の漁業制度は、明治の漁業法を廃止し、新たに1949年（昭和24）に公布された漁業法によって規定されている。この法律は漁業活動・漁場利用の秩序の維持と水産資源の保護を目的とするもので、沿岸海域については、定められた漁具・漁法で漁業を営む権利である漁業権を設定し、回遊・移動する魚類を対象とする漁業については農林水産大臣または知事による許可制がとられている。サケ・マス流し網漁業、捕鯨業、マグロ延縄漁業、トロール・底引網漁業、巻網漁業等の沖合い・遠洋で操業する漁業は総隻数または総トン数が定められ、あるいは禁漁区、禁漁期が定められている。しかし許可制の施行にもかかわらず、漁業生産力の上昇は、業種によって資源状態、経営状況の悪化を引き起こし、減船整理、業種転換という調整が繰り返されている。また養殖や増殖の新たな技術の開発によって、沿岸海域の利用形態も変わってきており、漁業権制度の見直しも課題となってきている。

［高山隆三］

国際的漁業調整と海洋新秩序

公海の漁場に各国の漁船が自由に入り会って操業する場合に引き起こされる水産資源の減少・枯渇に対し、関係諸国は資源の共同調査、総漁獲量の規制、国別漁獲量の割当て等についての条約や協定を結んできた。先進諸国の大型トロール船が入り会って利用してきた海域ではとりわけこうした取決めが必要であった。漁業条約に基づく国際的な機構はおもなもので20以上に上り、ほとんどの海域にその効力は及んでいる。この機構には、FAO（国連食糧農業機関）憲章に基づくFAOの地域機関として設立され、調査、研究、情報の配布を主とするものもあるが、また、1946年に成立した国際捕鯨取締条約のように資源調査・研究だけではなく、保存すべき鯨種、漁期、禁止区域、体長制限、捕獲制限頭数などを規定し、強い規制力を発揮している条約がある。1970年代からアメリカやイギリスで盛り上がってきた捕鯨反対運動の圧力も加わって、捕獲しうる鯨種と頭数も年々縮減され、わが国の捕鯨業も衰退を余儀なくされてきた。またこの条約に加盟している36か国のうち、1986年まで捕鯨を行っていたのは日本とソ連の2か国にすぎず、捕鯨全面禁止の多数決の前に、わが国も近世からの歴史をもつ捕鯨業からの撤退を余儀なくされた。

　わが国は、2003年（平成15）現在、北太平洋さけ・ます保存条約、ベーリング公海漁業条約、北西大西洋漁業条約、南極海洋生物資源保存条約などおもなもので26の条約・協定を結んでおり、そのほかミクロネシア連邦、ナウルなどと民間漁業協定を結んでいる。この条約や協定には、前述の捕鯨取締条約のように200海里の排他的経済水域設定以前に結ばれたものもあるが、多くは設定に伴って内容を改めて締結されたものである。200海里経済水域内での外国漁船の操業に対しては、漁区・漁期の規定、漁船数・漁獲量・魚種の制限、入漁料の徴収、違反に対する罰金規定、操業に際しての監督官の乗船などの条項が盛り込まれている。

　200海里の排他的な水域の設定の経緯には、公海自由の原則を掲げた先進国の近代的漁船による開発途上国周辺海域での操業に対する開発途上国の反発・ナショナリズムの高揚が底流をなしている。しかし同時に、その契機には、1945年にアメリカ大統領トルーマンが、アメリカの大陸棚資源に対する国家管轄権を主張した宣言があるのである。この宣言に倣って、同年にメキシコが、1946年にはパナマ、アルゼンチンが大陸棚の管轄に関する宣言を発し、さらに南米諸国のなかには主権宣言を行うものが現れてくる。1967年の第22回国連総会でマルタ代表が、海底資源は人類の共同財産であり、その利用に対する国際的秩序の必要性を訴えたことが、1973年の第三次海洋法会議の発足を促した。この会議の展開過程で、開発途上国は海洋の天然資源に対しても恒久的主権の主張を打ち出し、各国沿岸の200海里内水域を沿岸国の専管水域とする方向が強まったのである。

　1976年4月にアメリカは漁業保存管理法を成立させ、1977年から実施し、EC（ヨーロッパ共同体）も200海里経済水域宣言を発して77年に実施し、ソ連も1976年12月に200海里水域を設定した。わが国も1977年7月に200海里漁業水域を設定するなど、世界の主要国は1970年代後半に相次いで200海里水域の設定を行い、海洋の新たな分割と利用秩序の体制が確立したのである。アメリカは1980年にブロー法といわれる「アメリカ漁業促進法」を成立させ、1982年にさらにブロー法を修正し、自国漁船による水産資源の最適利用を促進・強化し、外国漁船の入漁を締め出してゆくことを基本方針とすることになった。この200海里体制の確立によって、わが国のような遠洋漁業の操業を外国200海里水域に頼ってきた国は、漁獲量制限によって遠洋漁船の減船が強いられ、また入漁料も増額され、経営的には苦しい立場に追い込まれた。この時期の、入漁料等の変化をみると、わが国がアメリカに支払う入漁料等は、1977年の16億円から83年には86億円となり、ソ連水域への入漁に対する漁業協力費は83年度で42億5000万円に上った。ここに公海自由の原則によって漁業生産を遠洋漁場の開発・利用によって発展させるという生産力展開の時代は終わりを告げ、自国200海里内水産資源の合理的利用を模索する時代が始まったのである。

［高山隆三］

『日本学士院編『明治前期日本漁業技術史』（1959・日本学術振興会）』▽『岡本清造著『水産経済学』（1961・恒星社厚生閣）』▽『高山隆三他編著『現代水産経済論』（1982・北斗書房）』▽『小野征一郎著『200海里体制下の漁業経済』（1999・農林統計協会）』▽『川崎健著『漁業資源』（2000・成山堂書店）』

[参照項目] | 水産業 | 捕鯨

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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