Teaching license - Kyojumenkyo

Japanese: 教授免許 - きょうじゅめんきょ
Teaching license - Kyojumenkyo

[Lycentia dokendi = Emergence of a teaching license]

The establishment of universities in Europe was amid the establishment and development of cities from around the 12th century and the cultural trend known as the "Twelfth Century Renaissance." The first of these were organizations that were established in Bologna and Paris from the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century, and were called the "Collection of Students (Italy)" (universitas scolarium) and the "Collection of Teachers and Students (France)" (universitas magistrorum et scolarium) , respectively. During their formative period, these organizations repeatedly engaged in fierce conflicts and struggles with the bishops and chapters, who were the ecclesiastical authorities in the region at the time, and the cancellarii (chief archivists) , over the right to grant teaching licenses. As a result of the examinations (private examination (France) (Italy): examen privatum) organised by Cancellarius, the licentia docendi (France) (Italy), or license to teach, was awarded to recognise the activity of teachers within the diocese.

It is unclear when it first appeared, but it is said that the turning point was the resolution of the Third Lateran Council in 1179, convened by Pope Alexander III. In it, Cancelarius was ordered not to accept emoluments for granting teaching licenses, but to grant them to all those who were sufficiently qualified to apply. Bishops and Cancelarius tried to use this right to grant teaching licenses to place the newly formed association of teachers and students (colleges) under their jurisdiction, but ultimately failed. Indicators of a college include the right to recruit new members and award degrees, the right to establish rules and require members to comply with them, the election of officers, and the possession of a seal.

[Conflict between the Church and the University over the awarding of the Lycentia Docendi]

In Paris, from the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century, bishops and cancellarii, who traditionally considered education to be one of the church's responsibilities, did not easily give up their right to grant teaching licenses and demanded that university teachers obey them. The Papacy (Italy) intervened in this conflict. Papal intervention would greatly change the situation of this conflict, but generally, 13th century popes welcomed the development of universities. This is because they recognized the importance and value of intellectual activity in universities as institutions, and they wanted universities to be research institutions for the defense of the orthodox faith of the Catholic Church against the heretical movements that were emerging at the time. In Paris, cancellarii essentially lost their privilege to grant teaching licenses in 1213 due to this intervention by the pope. In 1219, cancellarii's privilege was finally lost, and this authority was transferred to the university. As a result, the university congregation came to award magister and doctoral degrees through examinations that they themselves conducted (public examination (France): examen publicum) .

In Bologna, in the 12th century, the Church did not have the authority to grant licenses. Masters and Doctors of Law examined candidates and granted licenses. In 1219, however, Pope Honorius III (1216-27) gave the Archdeacon the power to grant licenses in the name of the Church. Here, too, the Pope's intention was not to disinterest himself, but to incorporate the Bologna law school into the Papal supervision system.

[Universal Teaching License and Universities]

In the Middle Ages, the term used to refer to an academic institution was studium (Europe) rather than universitas (Europe) . In the 13th century, various adjectives were added to studium, such as studium particurale or studium generale .

At the beginning of the 13th century, the term studio generale had not yet come into general use, and the name was still based on convention. In general, studio generale meant a place where students from all over Europe gathered, where at least one of the higher subjects (theology, law, medicine) was taught, and where several teachers taught those subjects. An important change in meaning began to occur in the second half of the 13th century. In other words, the idea that the foundation of a studio generale had to be by the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor, who were universal authorities in the Middle Ages, became common. At the same time, unlike other studios, students there were granted a stipend for a certain period of time even when they left their post. In addition, those who obtained a teaching qualification there were granted the "universal teaching license (licentia ubique docendi) " or "universal teaching license (ius ubique docendi) " which allowed them to teach in all Christian countries. Pope Nicholas IV granted the above privileges to the University of Bologna (Italy) (1291) and the University of Paris (France) (1292) , thus granting both universities universal professorship and placing them under the protection and control of the Church.

However, the universal professorial qualification, which was valid in all Christian countries, began to show limitations in its validity around the 14th century. The background to this was the beginning of the formation of nation-states in France and England, and the change in the attitude of university professors due to the changes in society at that time. In other words, the increase in the number of new universities established in connection with the formation of nation-states (according to Rachedor, 6 universities in the 12th century, 18 universities in the 13th century, 22 universities in the 14th century, and 34 universities in the 15th century) promoted the nationalization and regionalization of universities and degrees. Furthermore, the salary system that began in earnest in the 14th century incorporated university professors into the political systems of countries and regions. In addition, with regard to the change in the attitude of university professors, from the beginning of the appearance of the universal professorial qualification, barriers were created in the mutual recognition of degrees between universities based on differences in the level of the degree courses. Furthermore, the free inflow of teachers from outside led to a decrease in the income of teachers, who still relied on student fees for their income. In particular, for the teachers in the Faculty of Liberal Arts, who were also students of the higher faculties, this was a matter of life and death for them, and so they did not welcome the free influx of teachers.

Thus, the universal validity of teaching qualifications was one of the important legal attributes of the studium generale, but after the 14th century it gradually became a mere formality. Here we can see the beginning of the modern trend toward academic degrees being produced and applied within national and regional boundaries.
Author: Masahiro Matsuura

References: H. Rushdall, translated by Yokoo Soei, The Origin of Universities: A History of Medieval European Universities, Vols. 1, 2, and 3, Toyokan Publishing, 1968-70.

References: Yoshihito Kodama, Medieval Universities in Italy: Their Establishment and Transformation, Nagoya University Press, 2007.

References: AE Bernstein, Magisterium and License: Corporate Autonomy against Papal Authority in the Medieval University of Paris, Viator, vol.9, 1978.

Source : Heibonsha "University Encyclopedia" About the University Encyclopedia Information

Japanese:

[リケンティア・ドケンディ=教授免許の発生]

ヨーロッパに大学が成立するのは,12世紀頃からの都市の成立・発展や「十二世紀ルネサンス」と呼ばれる文化的潮流を背景とする動きの中においてである。その最初の動きは,12世紀末から13世紀初頭においてボローニャとパリに誕生した団体であったが,それぞれ「学生大学団(イタリア)」(universitas scolarium),「教師と学生の大学団(フランス)」(universitas magistrorum et scolarium)と呼ばれた。この団体は形成期において,当時,地域の教会裁治権者であった司教や教会参事会の教育監督者,カンケラリウス(文書局長)と教授免許授与権をめぐって激しく対立,抗争を繰り返すこととなった。カンケラリウスが主催して行った試験(個人試験(フランス)(イタリア):examen privatum)の結果,司教区内で教授活動を認めるものとして授与されたのがリケンティア・ドケンディ(フランス)(イタリア)(licentia docendi)=教授免許(フランス)(イタリア)あるいは教師免許状(フランス)(イタリア)であった。

 その出現の時期については明確でないが,画期であったのは,ローマ教皇アレクサンデル3世が招集した1179年の第3回ラテラノ公会議の決議であるといわれる。そこでは,カンケラリウスは教授免許の授与に際して謝礼を受け取ってはならず,十分な資格のあるすべての希望者に免許状を与えるよう命じられている。司教やカンケラリウスは,この教授免許授与権をてこに,新生間もない教師と学生の団体(大学団)を自己の裁治権の下に置こうとしたが,最終的に失敗に帰す。なお,大学団の指標として,新入会員採用権および学位授与権,規約を制定し,その遵守を成員に要求する権利,役員の選出,印璽の保有が指摘されている。

[リケンティア・ドケンディ授与をめぐる教会権力と大学団の相克]

パリでは,12世紀末から13世紀初頭にかけて,伝統的に教育を教会の責務の一つと捉えていた司教やカンケラリウスは教授免許授与権を容易に放棄せず,大学の教師たちが彼らに服従することを要求した。こうした争いに教皇庁(イタリア)が介入する。教皇の干渉は,この対立構造の局面を大きく変えることになるが,総じて13世紀の教皇たちは大学の発展を歓迎した。なぜなら,教皇たちは大学という機関に知的活動の重要さとその価値を認めるとともに,当時出現していた異端運動に対するカトリック教会の正統信仰擁護の研究機関であることを望んだからである。パリにおいてカンケラリウスは,こうした教皇の介入により,実質的に1213年教授認可を授与する特権を失った。1219年最終的にカンケラリウスのこの特権は失われ,この権限は大学に移譲された。その結果,大学団は自ら行う試験(公開試験(フランス):examen publicum)により,マギステルやドクトル学位を授与することになったのである。

 ボローニャでは,12世紀に教授免許を授与する権限は,教会にはなかった。法学のマスターやドクターが志願者に試験を行い,免許を授与していた。しかし,1219年教皇ホノリウス3世(在位1216-27)が助祭長に教会の名において教授免許を授与する権限を与えている。ここでも,教皇の意図は利害を離れたものではなく,ボローニャの法学校を教皇の教育監督制度の中に取り込むことであった。

[万国教授免許と大学]

中世において,アカデミックな教育機関を示す言葉はウニヴェルシタス(ヨーロッパ)(universitas)よりストゥディウム(ヨーロッパ)(studium)であった。13世紀になると,このストゥディウムにさまざまな形容詞が付加されて使われるようになる。たとえばストゥディウム・パルティキュラーレ(studium particurale)あるいはストゥディウム・ゲネラーレ(studium generale)がそれである。

 13世紀初頭,ストゥディウム・ゲネラーレという言葉はいまだ一般化しておらず,その呼称も慣例によっていた。一般に,ストゥディウム・ゲネラーレの意味するところは,ヨーロッパのあらゆるところから学生が集まる場所であり,高等の諸学科(神学,法学,医学)の少なくとも一つが教えられたこと,また,複数の教師がそうした学科を教える場であった。このような意味内容に重要な変化がみられるようになるのが,13世紀後半になってからである。つまり,ストゥディウム・ゲネラーレの創設は,中世において普遍的権威であった教皇や神聖ローマ皇帝によらなければならないという考えが一般化してきた。と同時に,他のストゥディウムと異なり,そこに学ぶ者には任地を離れても,一定の期間,聖職禄が認められた。また,そこで教授資格を得た者は,全キリスト教国で教えることができる「万国教授免許(licentia ubique docendi)」あるいは「万国教授資格(ius ubique docendi)」を持つことが認められた。教皇ニコラウス4世は,ボローニャ大学(イタリア)(1291年),パリ大学(フランス)(1292年)に上記の特権を認めている。これにより,両大学はこの万国教授資格を認められ,教会の保護を受けるとともに統制の下に置かれることになった。

 しかし,この全キリスト教国において通用性をもった万国教授資格(ヨーロッパ)は,14世紀を境としてその通用性に限界が見られるようになる。その背景にはフランスやイギリスにおける国民国家形成の開始や,当時の社会の変貌にともなう大学教師たちの意識の変化があった。すなわち,国民国家形成と関連して,大学の新設の増加が(ラシュドールによれば,12世紀:6大学,13世紀:18大学,14世紀:22大学,15世紀:34大学),大学や学位の国家・地域化を促進する。また14世紀に本格的に始まる俸給制は,大学の教師を国・地域の政治体制に組み込むことになった。また,大学人たちの意識変化に関して,万国教授資格の出現当初より,学位課程のレベルの違いを根拠にした,大学間相互の学位認証に障壁が設けられることになった。さらに外部からの教師の自由な流入は,いまだその収入を学生の聴講料に頼っていた教師の収入減をもたらすことになった。とくに,このことは上級学部の学生でもあった学芸学部の教師たちにとっては,生活上の死活問題であったため,教師の自由な流入を歓迎しなかった。

 このように万国教授資格の通用性は,ストゥディウム・ゲネラーレの重要な法的属性の一つであったが,14世紀以降,徐々に形骸化していった。ここに,近代以降,学位が国家・地域の枠内で生産,適用されることになる動きの端緒を認めることができよう。
著者: 松浦正博

参考文献: H. ラシュドール著,横尾壮英訳『大学の起源―ヨーロッパ中世大学史』上・中・下,東洋館出版社,1968-70.

参考文献: 児玉善仁『イタリアの中世大学―その成立と変容』名古屋大学出版会,2007.

参考文献: A.E. Bernstein, Magisterium and License: Corporate Autonomy against Papal Authority in the Medieval University of Paris, Viator, vol.9, 1978.

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