Toy - Gangu (English spelling) toy

Japanese: 玩具 - がんぐ（英語表記）toy

Toys. Children's playthings. Nowadays, these are generally commercialized, but in the past, many were handmade. These included things that children made themselves and played with, and things that adults made and gave to children.

[Ryosuke Saito]

Overview

The development of toys can be divided into three stages. First, natural objects such as stones and plants were used as toys. These natural toys are the most primitive form that have been passed down since ancient times, and show the time when toys were not yet commercialized and were all handmade. Since they are toys made from natural objects, they are often subject to seasonal restrictions. The next stage is when toys are made from household items. In a broad sense, playing with furniture, mother's sewing tools, or kitchen dishes can also be considered as playing with toys. Since such pretend play can cause trouble for adults, toys were once called "bad things" in the Kansai region. The fact that toys specially for children were made and given to them is related to the development of lifestyle culture and the emergence of a view of childhood. Furthermore, commercial toys that were purchased and given to children appeared, but it was generally not until the relatively early modern period that people began to buy them for children with money, and even then it was almost exclusively in urban areas. Even at the start of the Meiji era, toys were sold in urban areas by street stalls and peddlers at temple and shrine festivals and fairs, and even in Tokyo there were very few regular stores specializing in toys. However, with the economic growth of society, commercial toys made remarkable inroads and came to dominate the market.

Commercial toys include the high-end toys found in the toy sections of department stores, and the relatively small, inexpensive products sold at sweet shops. The former are called large toys and the latter small toys. In addition to these, there are toys for artistic appreciation, toys for adults, and other toys, and the types and categories of toys are wide and varied, with their characteristics also being very diverse and complex.

[Ryosuke Saito]

The change of words

The word "omocha" (toy) originated from the meaning "something to play with by hand". In the Heian period, it was called "mote (mochi) asobimono" or simply "asobimono" (The Tale of Genji), which became the origin of the word "omocha" (toy). In the Muromachi period, the ladies-in-waiting of the Imperial Palace and the Sento Imperial Palace used the word "mochi asobi" (mochi toy) as a term, which became the word "omocha" (toy). The word "mochasobi" still exists in the Kansai region today, which shows its remnants. In the Edo period, "omochi asobi" or "te asobi" were used in spoken language, and were written in kanji as "ganrou" (published in Kiyu Shoran, 1830) and "roubutsu" (published in Kinsei Fuzokushi, 1853). The character "ganmono" was also used. In 1762 (the 12th year of the Horeki era), two lanterns were donated to Sumiyoshi Shrine in Setsu Province (Osaka Prefecture) by a wholesaler of hand-playing Hina dolls from Kyoto, Osaka, and Edo. The names on the pedestals of these lanterns are inscribed with "Ganmono Sho," a reference to the toy dealers of the time.

In the Meiji era, "kanmono" became "toys", and a wholesaler in Edo that handled toy Hina dolls changed its name to "Tokyo Toys Hina Dolls Wholesaler", and in 1903 (Meiji 36), the name of the wholesaler association's journal became "Tokyo Hina Toys Commercial News", changing "toys" from "toys". The following year, national textbooks began to be used simultaneously in elementary schools across the country, and due to the influence of the accompanying national character unification movement, the school terms "omocha" and "omocha" became commonly used and became part of everyday language. From the end of the Meiji era, the use of "omocha" with the furigana reading "omocha" was also seen. In the Showa era and during World War II, as a measure to strengthen the wartime system, the new name "yuugu" was sometimes proposed to replace this, in order to emphasize the healthiness of "omocha".

[Ryosuke Saito]

history

Toys in the broad sense must have existed since the beginning of human history, but even in ancient Egyptian artifacts from around 2000 BC and in ancient Greece and Rome, toys that are common to the present day, such as games, tops, balls, wooden horses, dolls and animal toys that move when pulled by a string, make-believe toys, and dress-up toys, are found, proving that toys have a long history. Dolls first started out as religious idols, but over time they gradually became free of religious restrictions and became children's favorite toys. In Europe, clay knight figures and glass toys appeared in the Middle Ages, but from the Renaissance period from the 14th to 16th centuries, craftsmen's guilds were formed in cities such as Nuremberg in Germany, and toy production as a commodity began in earnest. Toys made from new materials and ideas, such as wood, wax, pulp, paper mache, and metal, were created one after another and began to be sold all over Europe, gradually developing. Among these, the "Doll's House" which began in the 16th century became popular and was welcomed by aristocratic families around the world.

From the middle of the 18th century, the custom of hanging toys as decorations on Christmas trees was born, and toys also became popular. Children began playing war games and dressing up dolls made from paper cutouts. In the second half of the 18th century, tin soldier dolls were sold in Nuremberg and became a huge hit throughout Europe. From the end of the 18th century to the 19th century, mass production of metal toys was developed by pressing tin sheets into molds, and clockwork dolls and vehicle toys appeared. Furthermore, the appearance of scientific toys using steam power and magnetism, as well as celluloid toys, marked a new stage in the development of modern toys. Reflecting this trend, the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 saw the exhibition of many science and engineering toys that fostered scientific knowledge and were very popular. Among these mechanized toys, there were model prototypes aimed at obtaining invention patents, and elaborate, lifelike products that served as references for scientific research.

At the same time, educational toys also appeared. The German scientist Froebel invented toys for early childhood education, and the importance of toys as a part of the physical and mental development of children came to be recognized.

In recent years, with the advancement and development of materials and manufacturing techniques, toys have become a modern industrial product, and both the demand and production of toys have shown remarkable growth. New global trends include the miniaturization and mechanization of toy dolls. It is said that "toys know no borders," and many toys are common to all countries. On the other hand, there is also an underlying rise in a kind of ethnic toy that makes use of the traditions of each ethnic culture.

[Ryosuke Saito]

Japanese Toys

Clay figures (clay figures), clay masks, and clay animals from the prehistoric Jomon period have been excavated, and some of them are thought to be a type of toy, but many of the prototypes of toys that have been passed down to the present day were introduced from mainland China in ancient times. For example, the name "top" was given to tops because they were introduced from Tang (China) via Goryeo (Koguryo) during the Nara period. The name itself indicates the origin of the toy, as seen in the "Wamyosho" written in the Johei period (931-938) of the Heian period, where it is written as "Komatsukuri." "Dakyu" (a ball game similar to modern polo), which was played from the Heian period to the Edo period, was also introduced from ancient China, and from the aristocratic class, it became popular as "Gitcho" (ball game) for boys to play outdoors after the Heian period. As the Korean word saburoku suggests, sugoroku (back-strap game) was introduced to Japan via the Korean peninsula in the 6th century. Furthermore, kemari (ball game) was introduced directly from the Tang dynasty, and later evolved into temari (ball game), a plaything for girls. Kites also appeared in the Heian period, and were called kamiroushi (paper kites) in Chinese style. They were treated as a kind of art in the imperial court and were used in Shinto rituals to predict the fortune of agricultural crops. They became children's toys in the Edo period. During the Muromachi period, the game of shuttlecock introduced from China was assimilated into the Japanese style and eventually took the form of hagoita (battledove), which became a game for children to play on during the New Year. The technique of making paper mache was also introduced to Japan at that time, and toys with Japanese-style features, such as koboshi (little dolls that rise up). In the Edo period, all of these games showed unique development and perfection in Japan, and numerous varieties were produced. Commercial toys appeared in large cities such as Edo and Osaka, but self-sufficient toys also appeared all over the country, mainly in castle towns, and most of the old toys that are now called local toys were created in this period.

A distinctive feature of these Japanese toys is that many of them are linked to religious customs and seasonal annual events. The core of these are the "Hina Ningyo" (dolls). In Japan, dolls were first made from a religious standpoint, beginning with "hitogata" (dolls) to ward off impurities and disasters from the human body, and dolls made from paper or plants were used for these. In the Heian period, small paper dolls were called "hihina" (hiina), and a type of doll play was played with, as can be seen in classics such as "The Pillow Book" and "The Tale of Genji." This overlapped with religious customs, and from the Muromachi period, a pair of Hina dolls, one male and one female, began to be displayed on Jōshi (the first day of the snake) in March. During the Edo period, this spread and developed into the Doll's Festival on March 3rd, and magnificent works such as the Emperor and Empress dolls (Dairibina), the Three Court Ladies, the Five Musicians, the Attendants, and Ukiyo-e dolls displayed on the Hina stage continued to appear. Furthermore, seasonal annual events such as the Boys' Festival became more popular, and with this came the development of toy making centered around lucky charms. Many of these toys were connected to various auspicious purposes, such as keeping insects away from children, raising children, warding off evil spirits, bringing good luck, prospering in business, and praying for a good harvest, all of which were rooted in the folk beliefs of the time, and were sold as souvenir toys at festivals and fairs at shrines and temples. Even today, they remain as traditional local toys all over the country.

In the Meiji era, metal toys made of tinplate were first introduced from overseas around 1872 (Meiji 5), and domestically produced items such as tinplate rattles appeared around 1874. Western-style modern toys such as rubber balls, wind-up toy trains, and celluloid dolls were then imported and produced domestically. After the Russo-Japanese War, toys made a remarkable advance, and from the end of the Meiji era to the Taisho era, due to changes in lifestyle and the trends of the times, toys began to be recognized as educational and as cultural assets, and the momentum for toy education flourished along with the holding of children's expositions and the rise of the children's song movement.

In the Showa era, toys entered overseas markets as a representative Japanese miscellaneous item. Their social status gradually improved as a result of events such as the Japan-US Friendship Doll Envoy doll exchange between American and Japanese children (1927), the submission of a doll to the fourth section of the Imperial Exhibition (1936), which was selected and recognized for its artistic value, and various doll and toy exhibitions. However, until the mid-Meiji period, small, crude, and cheap dolls called "small toys" dominated. Some of the cheap sweets sold with them were treated as a type of toy, called "food toys." For example, flour crafts, candy crafts of animals such as cranes and turtles, and bubble gum that became popular after World War II were popular with children, but as toys have become more modern, this type of toy has been on the decline.

After the Second World War, the toy industry reverted to the state it was in at the beginning of the Meiji era due to the damage caused by the war, but it showed an astonishing recovery from the devastation. With their brilliant ideas and the development of new manufacturing techniques, they created internationally popular toys such as friction toys (1948), radio-controlled buses (1955), sonic-controlled cars that change direction when a whistle is blown (1958), domestic production of plastic model toys (1958), and the black vinyl doll "Dakko-chan" (1960). Around this time, mass media toys (character toys) featuring popular TV shows and cartoons as protagonists became popular products, and monster toys were popular among children. Furthermore, from the late 1960s, games such as Othello became popular, and from the 1970s, electronic toys such as video games became popular. As toys became more diverse and more high-end, the age of children as a main focus shifted to a wider range of enthusiasts, and many toys aimed at adults began to appear. On the other hand, there is a trend of children moving away from toys, and the focus of children's toy enthusiasts is shifting to younger age groups.

[Ryosuke Saito]

Educational value of toys

It is generally recognized that toys are necessary for the development of children's minds and bodies. In 1836, Friedrich Froebel, a German educator who founded kindergartens, invented a type of toy called "Gifts" (meaning gifts from heaven) as a practical toy for early childhood education. Maria Montessori, an Italian female educator, also invented educational toys such as picture-fitting toys as a method of sensory education for children. In Japan, since the Meiji period, child educators and psychologists have been studying the usefulness of toys in child education, and the educational value of toys, which had previously been overlooked as "bad tools," has come to be understood. For example, from the Meiji to Taisho periods, child psychologist Heizaburo Takashima classified the effects of toys into those that are useful for nurturing intelligence, training, aesthetics, physical education, the senses, memory, imagination, reasoning, taste, touch (muscle sense), hearing, and vision. Similarly, Seki Hiroyuki used 224 types of doll toys as examples, pointing out that they cultivate children's imagination, reasoning, memory, thinking, observation, willpower, as well as aesthetic feelings and empathy. All toys can be said to be useful in the physical and mental development of children, but there are some that have been made with an emphasis on their educational value and used as teaching materials for that purpose. This includes science and engineering toys and learning toys, and they are also known as educational toys. After World War II, with the improvement of early childhood education and the emergence of the PTA, these educational toys also developed, but the challenge for the future is to rationally combine the entertainment value and educational value of the toys themselves.

[Ryosuke Saito]

kinds

Toys in Japan are very diverse, ranging from toys that were introduced from mainland China long ago, toys that originated all over the country, such as local toys, toys that are handmade using natural objects, and modern toys that have been developed since the Meiji period. Categorized by material and purpose, there are said to be approximately 4,000 types, making Japan one of the richest in the world. Until the Meiji period, toys were made from materials such as wood, earth, straw, and paper, but the toy picture book "Edo Nishiki," published in 1773 (An'ei 2), lists 88 types of toys from that time, showing that Japan was already blessed with a large number of playthings during the Edo period.

Categorized by the main materials currently in common use, there are toys made of metal (such as tin vehicle toys), plastic (such as house play tools), wood (such as building blocks), cloth (such as stuffed animals), rubber (such as balls), glass (such as marbles), ceramics (such as decorative dolls), chemical applications (such as fireworks), bamboo (such as bamboo dragonflies), shells (such as marbles), stone, bone, or horn (such as dice), and even general toys that combine all of the above materials (such as toy harmonicas).

In terms of use, they can be classified as dolls (dress-up dolls, etc.), childcare toys (get-up dolls, etc.), sound toys (drums, etc.), imitation toys (train toys, etc.), vehicle toys (cars, etc.), game toys (karuta, video games, etc.), handicraft toys (paper chiyogami, etc.), animal toys (sticker bears, etc.), exercise toys (battledore, etc.), intellectual toys (puzzle rings, etc.), educational toys (word games, etc.), scientific toys (nikko photography, etc.), hobby toys (local toys, etc.), and seasonal toys (hina dolls, etc.). Recently, fancy items (stationery, small items) and hobby items (handmade toys) have also been added.

[Ryosuke Saito]

Toy Industry

Japan's toy industry developed under a wholesaler system from the mid-Edo period, produced Western-style toys at low labor costs from the Meiji period onwards, and expanded overseas to follow the developed countries of the toy industry after the Russo-Japanese War, growing into one of the emerging industries. In particular, after World War I, the industry made great strides in comparison with the decline of developed countries such as Germany and Austria, and in 1937 (Showa 12) exports amounted to 42 million yen, ranking fourth in trade value after ceramics, iron products and cotton textiles.

During the Second World War, the loss of overseas markets, shortages and controls on production materials, and the scattering of businesses due to war damage caused a decline in Japan's toy industry, but after the war it recovered and doubled again, ranking first in the world in 1961 (Showa 36), with a total toy export value of 28.6 billion yen. Since 1962, the Japan Toy International Fair (called the Tokyo Toy Show in 1982) has been held every year, attracting buyers from around the world, and Japan has maintained its position as a toy kingdom. In 1971, Japan began to impose voluntary restrictions on safe toys (ST mark), and the toy industry began to manufacture and sell conscientious toy products. In the following year, 1972, Japan lost the top spot in toy exports to Hong Kong, but in 1998 production reached 752.3 billion yen. Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya are the three major production areas, and domestic demand has been increasing recently.

[Ryosuke Saito]

"Japanese Doll Toy Dictionary" edited by Saito Ryosuke (1968, Tokyodo Publishing)" ▽ "Toy Journey" by Kako Satoko (1977, Holp Shinsho) ▽ "From Toys to Children's Equipment" by Waku Yozo (1978, Tamagawa University Press) ▽ "World Toy Encyclopedia" by Tada Shinsaku and Tada Chihiro (1989, Iwasaki Bijutsusha)

"Two Colors of Edo"
A picture book about toys from the Edo period. It introduces a total of 54 illustrations of toys, both old and new, and each has an explanatory song. The photos show "The Cat and the Mouse" (right) and "Hidden Screen" (left), both of which are mechanical toys from the time. ©Shogakukan ">

"Two Colors of Edo"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

おもちゃ。子供の遊び道具。現在では普通商品化されたものをさすが、古くは手作りのものが多く用いられた。これには、子供自身がつくって遊ぶものと、大人がつくって子供に与えるものとがあった。

［斎藤良輔］

概観

玩具発生の順序は三つに分けられる。まず石や植物などの自然物をそのまま利用して遊び道具とした。この自然物玩具は、もっとも古くから伝えられた原始的な形のもので、まだ商品化されずにすべて手作りであった時代の姿を示している。自然物を玩具化したものなので、季節的な制約を受けることが多い。次は家庭内の生活用具を遊び道具とする段階である。家具、母親の裁縫用具、あるいは台所の食器類などで遊ぶことも、広い意味で玩具遊びの一つとなる。こうした仮用遊びは、大人たちを困らせることにもなるので、かつて関西では玩具を「悪さもの」ともよんだ。子供のためにとくに専用のおもちゃをつくって与えるようになったのは、生活文化が進み、児童観が芽生えてくることと関係がある。さらに、買って与える商品玩具の登場であるが、金銭で子供にそれを買って与えるようになったのは、一般には比較的近世になってからのことで、それもほとんど都会地に限られていた。明治時代に入ったころでも、玩具の販売は、都会においても、社寺の祭礼、縁日の露店や行商人の手によって行われ、東京などでも玩具専門の常店はきわめて少なかった。それが、社会の経済成長とともに、商品玩具が目覚ましく進出してきて、大きな分野を占めるようになった。

　商品玩具には、デパートの玩具売場に並んでいる高級玩具類と、駄菓子屋などで売っている比較的小形で安価な製品とがある。前者を大物玩具、後者を小物玩具という。このほか美術的な鑑賞用のもの、成人向きのものなどを含めて、玩具の種類、分野は広く多岐にわたり、その性格もまた多種多様な複雑さをもっている。

［斎藤良輔］

ことばの移り変わり

「おもちゃ」ということばは、「手に持って遊ぶもの」という意味から生まれた。平安時代には、「もて（もち）あそびもの」、または略して「あそびもの」（『源氏物語』）とよび、これが「おもちゃ」の語源となった。室町時代には、御所や仙洞(せんとう)御所の女房たちが使った女房詞(にょうぼうことば)で「もちあそび」の語が「おもちゃ」ということばになったという。現在も関西方面に「もちゃそび」ということばがあるのは、その名残(なごり)を示すものである。江戸時代には、「おもちあそび」あるいは「てあそび」が話しことばとして用いられ、漢字では「翫弄(がんろう)」（『嬉遊笑覧(きゆうしょうらん)』1830刊）、「弄物(ろうぶつ)」（『近世風俗志』1853刊）などと書いた。また「翫物」の字も用いた。1762年（宝暦12）摂州（大阪府）住吉(すみよし)神社に、京・大坂・江戸三府の手遊雛人形(てあそびひなにんぎょう)問屋が寄進した常夜灯2基の台名に、「翫物商」と刻んであるのは、当時の玩具業者のことである。

　明治時代に入ると「翫物」が「玩物」となり、玩具雛人形商品を扱った江戸の卸業者も、「東京玩物雛人形問屋」と名称が変わり、さらに1903年（明治36）には同問屋組合の機関誌名が『東京雛玩具商報』となり、「玩物」から「玩具」となった。翌年には国定教科書が全国の小学校で一斉に使用を開始、それに伴う国字統一運動の影響もあって、学校用語の「おもちゃ」「玩具」が一般的に用いられるようになり、日常語化された。ときには「玩具」と書いて「おもちゃ」と振り仮名をつける併用も、明治末期からみられた。昭和期に入り、第二次世界大戦中には戦時体制強化策から、「玩具」の健全性を強調するという意味で、「遊具」という新名称がこれにかわって提唱されたときもあった。

［斎藤良輔］

歴史

広い意味での玩具は、人間の歴史が始まったときから存在したに違いないが、紀元前2000年ごろの古代エジプトの遺物や古代ギリシア・ローマ時代にも、ゲーム類、こま、まり、木馬、紐(ひも)で引くと動く人形や動物の玩具、ままごと遊び、着せ替え人形式のものなど、現在に共通する種類のものが見受けられ、玩具の歴史の古いことが知られる。人形は最初は宗教的な偶像から出発したが、時代とともにしだいに信仰上の制約を離れて、子供の愛玩物となった。ヨーロッパでは、中世に騎士の土人形やガラス製の玩具が登場しているが、14世紀から16世紀にかけてのルネサンス時代から、ドイツのニュルンベルクなどの諸市に、工匠ギルド（同業組合）がつくられ、商品としての玩具製作が本格化した。木製、ろう細工、パルプ（練り物）製、紙の張り子、金属製のものなど、材料や着想も新しいものが次々に生み出されて、ヨーロッパ各地に出回るようになり、しだいに発達した。なかでも16世紀に始まる「人形の家」は、各国の貴族家庭などに迎えられて流行した。

　18世紀の中ごろからは、クリスマス・ツリーに飾りとして玩具をつるす風習が生まれ、玩具遊びも盛んになった。子供たちの間では、切抜き絵紙を細工した戦争ごっこ遊びや着せ替え人形も出現した。また18世紀後半にはニュルンベルクで錫(すず)製の兵隊人形が売り出されて、ヨーロッパ各国に大流行した。18世紀末から19世紀にかけては、ブリキ板をプレスして型をつくった金属玩具の大量生産が開発され、ぜんまい仕掛けの動きのある人形や、乗り物玩具などが現れた。さらに蒸気力、磁気応用の科学玩具や、セルロイド玩具の登場などで、近代玩具への新しい段階を迎えた。1851年ロンドンの大博覧会にも、こうした傾向を反映して、科学知識を育てる理工玩具が数多く出品されて人気をよんだ。この種の機械化玩具のなかには、発明特許を目ざす模型試作品や、科学研究の参考品として役だつような実物そっくりの精巧な作品も現れてきた。

　また、これに並行して、このころから教育玩具も登場した。ドイツのフレーベルが、幼児教育のための玩具を考案したのをはじめ、児童の心身の成長に必要なものとしての玩具の重要性が認識されてきている。

　最近は資材や製作技術などの向上、発達によって近代産業化され、玩具の需要、生産もともに目覚ましい発展ぶりを示している。世界的な新しい傾向としては、人形玩具作品の小形実物化、機械化があげられる。「おもちゃに国境はない」といわれ、各国に共通する作品も多くみられる。その反面、底流として、それぞれの民族文化の伝統を生かした、一種の民族玩具の台頭も感じられる。

［斎藤良輔］

日本の玩具

有史以前の縄文文化時代の粘土製の人形（土偶）や土面、土製の動物類などが発掘され、なかには玩具の一種と考えられるものもあるが、現代にまで伝わっている玩具の祖型には、古く中国大陸から渡来したものが多い。たとえば「こま」は、奈良時代に唐（中国）から高麗(こま)（高句麗(こうくり)）を経て移入されたので、この名がついた。平安時代の承平(じょうへい)年間（931～938）の『和名抄(わみょうしょう)』に「古末都玖利(こまつくり)」と記されているように、その名称がそのまま渡来系統を示している。平安時代から江戸時代にまで行われた「打毬(だきゅう)」（現代のポロに似た球戯）も、やはり古代中国からもたらされ、貴族階級の遊びから、平安時代以後は男の子の戸外遊戯の「毬打(ぎっちょう)」となって流行した。「双六(すごろく)」は朝鮮語の「サブロク」から連想されるように、6世紀ごろ朝鮮半島を経て伝来した。さらに「蹴鞠(けまり)」は唐朝から直接伝わり、後代の女の子の遊び道具「手鞠(てまり)」はこれから変化して生まれた。「凧(たこ)」も平安時代すでに登場していて、中国風に「紙老鴟(しろうし)」（紙製の鳶(とび)）とよばれ、宮中の技芸の一種として扱われ、また農作物の吉凶を占う神事などに用いられた。それが江戸時代に子供の遊び道具となった。室町時代には、中国から伝えられた羽根突き遊びが、日本的に消化されてやがて羽子板の形となり、正月の子供遊びに用いられるようになった。張り子の製作技法も当時同じく渡来して、「起きあがり小法師(こぼし)」など日本風なくふうを加えた玩具が生まれた。江戸時代に入ると、これらの遊びはいずれも日本独特の発達、完成をみせ、数多くの種類が出そろった。江戸、大坂などの大都会には商品玩具がにぎやかに登場してきたが、全国各地にも、城下町などを中心に自給自足的な作品が出現して、現在郷土玩具とよばれる古い玩具のほとんどがこの時代にできあがった。

　これらの日本玩具の特徴は、信仰的な習俗や季節的な年中行事などに結び付いたものが多い。その中核となったのが「雛人形(ひなにんぎょう)」である。人形は、日本でも最初は信仰的な立場からつくられ、人体の穢(けがれ)、災厄を祓(はら)う「人形(ひとがた)」がその始まりで、紙や植物製の人形がこれに用いられた。平安時代には、また小さな紙人形を「ひひな」（ひいな）とよんで、一種の人形遊びが行われたことは『枕草子(まくらのそうし)』や『源氏物語』などの古典にもみえている。これが信仰的な習俗と重なり、室町時代から男女一対(つい)の雛人形を3月上巳(じょうし)（最初の巳(み)の日）に飾るようになった。江戸時代にはこれが3月3日の雛祭となって広く普及、発展し、内裏雛(だいりびな)、三人官女、五人囃子(ばやし)、随身以下、雛段に飾る浮世人形など、華麗な作品が続いて現れた。さらに端午の節供など、季節ごとの年中行事が盛んに行われるようになり、これに付随して縁起物などを主体とする玩具作りも発達した。これらの玩具は、当時の民間信仰に根ざした子供の虫除(よ)け、子育て、厄除け、開運、商売繁盛、豊作祈願など、あらゆる縁起に結び付けられたものも多く、神社や寺院の祭礼、縁日などの土産玩具として売られた。現在でも伝承的な郷土玩具となって全国各地に残っている。

　明治時代に入ると、1872年（明治5）ごろからブリキ製の金属玩具がまず海外から紹介され、1874年ごろにはブリキ製のがらがらなど国産品が現れた。続いてゴムまり、ぜんまい仕掛けの汽車玩具、セルロイド人形など、欧米風の近代玩具が輸入され、国内でも生産されるようになった。日露戦争以後は目覚ましい躍進を遂げ、これに伴って明治末期から大正時代にかけては、生活様式の変移、時代の風潮から、玩具の教育性、文化財的価値が認められてきて、子供博覧会の開催、童謡運動の興隆などとともに玩具教育の機運も盛んになった。

　昭和時代に入ると、玩具は日本の代表的な雑貨商品として海外市場に進出する。またアメリカと日本の子供たちの間で行った日米親善人形使節の人形交歓（1927）や、帝展第四部に人形を出品、入選（1936）して芸術的価値が認められたのをはじめ、各種の人形玩具展が開催されるなど、その社会的地位もしだいに向上してきた。しかし、明治中期までは「小物玩具」とよばれる小形で粗雑、安価なものが優位を占めていた。それらといっしょに売られる駄菓子類のなかには、「食品玩具」として一種のおもちゃ扱いにされているものもあった。たとえば、新粉(しんこ)細工、飴(あめ)細工のツルやカメなどの動物類とか、第二次世界大戦後にみかけられた風船ガムが子供たちに親しまれたが、玩具商品が近代化されてくるにつれて、この種のものは後退の傾向にある。

　第二次世界大戦後は、戦災による打撃で、玩具産業は明治初期の状態に逆戻りしてしまったが、その壊滅のなかからふたたび驚異的な復興ぶりを示した。フリクション玩具（1948）、無線操縦のラジオコントロール・バス（1955）、笛を吹くと方向を変える音波操縦自動車（1958）、プラスチックモデル玩具の国産化（1958）、黒人のビニル人形「だっこちゃん」（1960）など、その優れた着想と新しい製作技術の開発によって、国際的な流行玩具を生み出した。またこのころから、テレビ番組や漫画の人気者を主人公にしたマスコミ玩具（キャラクターもの）が花形商品となってきて、怪獣玩具などが子供たちに迎えられた。さらに昭和40年代後半からはオセロゲームなどのゲームものが流行、昭和50年代以降はテレビゲームなどエレクトロニクス玩具が人気を集めている。玩具作品が多様化、高級化するにしたがって、子供中心の時代から移って愛好層が拡大し、成人層を相手とする玩具も数多く登場してきている。その反面、子供たちの間では「おもちゃ離れ」現象もみられ、子供の玩具愛好層の重点が低年齢化されてきている。

［斎藤良輔］

玩具の教育性

玩具が、子供の心身の糧として、人間形成のうえに必要なものであることは、一般に認識されてきている。幼稚園を創設したドイツの教育家フリードリヒ・フレーベルは、1836年、幼児教育の実践遊具として「恩物」（天からの賜り物の意）という保育玩具を創案した。またイタリアの女流教育家マリア・モンテッソリは、児童の感覚教育の一方法として、はめ絵式のものなどの教育玩具を考案した。日本でも明治時代以後は、児童教育、心理学者などによって玩具が児童教育に役だつことが考究され、これまで「悪さ道具」などと軽視されがちであった玩具の教育的価値が理解されてきた。たとえば、明治から大正時代に、児童心理学者高島平三郎が、玩具の効用を分類して、知力的、訓練的、審美的、体育的、感覚的、記憶的、想像的、推理的、味覚・触覚（筋覚）・聴覚・視覚的なものを養うことに役だつとしている。同じく関寛之(せきひろゆき)は、人形玩具224種を例に、それらが児童の想像力、推理力、記憶力、思考力、観察力、意志力または美的感情、同情心を養うことを指摘した。玩具はすべて児童の心身の成長に役だつものといえるが、教育性を強調して、それを目的につくられ教材化したものがある。理工玩具、学習玩具もこれに含まれ、教育玩具ともよばれている。第二次世界大戦後は乳幼児教育の向上、PTAの出現などでこの教育玩具も発達したが、玩具自体の娯楽性と教育性との合理的な融合に、今後の課題がある。

［斎藤良輔］

種類

日本の玩具は、古く中国大陸から伝来したもの、郷土玩具のように全国各地で生まれたもの、自然物などを手作りとしたもの、さらに明治以後発達した近代玩具など多種多様である。材料、用途などから分類すると約4000種にも上るといわれ、世界有数の豊かさである。明治時代までは木、土、藁(わら)、紙などを材料にしていたが、1773年（安永2）刊の玩具絵本『江都二色(えどにしき)』には、当時の玩具88種が掲載されていて、江戸時代すでに数多くの遊び道具に恵まれていたことがわかる。

　現在多く用いられている主要資材別に分類すると、金属製（ブリキ乗り物玩具など）、プラスチック製（ままごと道具など）、木製（積み木など）、布製（縫いぐるみ動物など）、ゴム製（まりなど）、ガラス製（ビー玉など）、陶磁製（装飾人形など）、薬品応用（花火など）、竹製（竹とんぼなど）、貝製（おはじきなど）、石や骨や角(つの)製（さいころなど）などのほかに、以上の各種材料を併用した総合玩具（玩具ハーモニカなど）があげられる。

　また用途の面からの分類では、人形（着せ替え人形など）、育児玩具（起きあがりなど）、音響玩具（太鼓など）、模倣玩具（電車遊びなど）、乗り物玩具（自動車など）、ゲーム玩具（かるた、テレビゲームなど）、手芸玩具（千代紙など）、動物玩具（シールのクマなど）、運動玩具（羽子板など）、知能玩具（知恵の輪など）、学習玩具（文字遊びなど）、科学玩具（日光写真など）、趣味玩具（郷土玩具など）、節供玩具（雛人形など）となる。なお最近は、ファンシーもの（文具、小物品）、ホビーもの（手作り遊び）なども加わっている。

［斎藤良輔］

玩具産業

日本の玩具産業は、江戸中期から問屋制度のもとに発達し、明治時代以降は欧米式玩具を安い労賃で生産、日露戦争後は玩具工業先進国を追って海外に進出し、新興産業の一つにまで成長した。ことに第一次世界大戦後は、ドイツ、オーストリアなど先進国の後退にかわって躍進を遂げ、1937年（昭和12）の輸出額は4200万円、貿易額では陶磁器、鉄製品、綿織物に次いで第4位となった。

　第二次世界大戦中は、海外市場の喪失、生産資材の欠乏と統制、戦災による業者の離散などによって転落したが、戦後ふたたび旧に倍する復活ぶりを示し、1961年（昭和36）には玩具輸出総額286億円、世界第1位の成績をみせた。翌1962年から日本玩具国際見本市（1982年から「東京おもちゃショー」）を年々開催して世界のバイヤーを集め、玩具王国の地位を占めている。1971年には安全玩具（STマーク）の自主規制に乗り出し、玩具業界が良心的な玩具商品の製作販売を実施。翌1972年、玩具輸出額で香港(ホンコン)に首位を譲ったが、1998年の生産額は7523億円に達している。東京、大阪、名古屋が三大生産地で、最近、国内需要の面が増大している。

［斎藤良輔］

『斎藤良輔編『日本人形玩具辞典』（1968・東京堂出版）』▽『加古里子著『おもちゃの旅』（1977・ほるぷ新書）』▽『和久洋三著『おもちゃから童具へ』（1978・玉川大学出版部）』▽『多田信作・多田千尋著『世界の玩具事典』（1989・岩崎美術社）』