A unit of education for school education. Originally, the idea of organizing a class into a group was based on economic reasons for teaching a large number of children and students at the same time, but in modern times, it is recognized that the social life of the class itself has a more important educational significance. Along with this practical educational meaning, a class can also be used as a unit of educational administration, such as the number of teachers and facilities, just like the "class" in class organization. [Jiro Yoshimoto and Toshitaka Okada] History of its establishmentBefore 1890 (Meiji 23), there were no classes in the modern sense in Japan, but the following year, in 1891, a Ministry of Education ordinance established the "Rules Concerning Class Organization, etc.", which stated that "a group of children who are taught together in one classroom by one regular teacher is called a class." It was around this time that schools finally began to expand in size, and they had no choice but to adopt a modern organization. The idea of class-based education in Western Europe is even older, with well-known ideas such as the 17th century proposal for class education by Comenius and the 19th century monitorial system proposed by England's Andrew Bell (1753-1838) and Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838). Even today, class-based education is the basis, but since the mid-1980s, the diversification of the physical space of schools and the development of educational information devices have led to a diversification of learning styles, individualization in terms of scale, and large group sizes. This is because school architecture was recommended to have a variety of spaces (especially open spaces) and sometimes asylum-like spaces, in addition to the traditional classroom with a physical space of 4 ken (about 7 meters) by 5 ken (about 9 meters). In the educational debate in the early 1980s, a shift from "education" to "learning" was advocated, and in conjunction with the revision of the curriculum guidelines (1989) that reflected this content, school architecture also shifted to one with spaces suited to learning and the actions of students. At the same time, the meaning of the class has deepened from being an efficient group for education to being a group that is a community of students. On the other hand, the innovation of information technology (IT), including computers, is remarkable, and it is important to note that children are no longer passive beings who obtain learning information through the Internet or school LANs, but are active beings who use multimedia to learn. In school education, there are examples of two-way distance learning, individual learning in classrooms equipped with one computer per student and LL (Language Laboratory), and classes that involve debates beyond the class based on images projected on a large screen. In addition, there are occasional opportunities for students to take classes taught by teachers from other schools through such media. In this day and age when teaching and learning activities have become so diverse, the significance of the classroom as a teaching and learning organization is being questioned, but the majority of school education is still based on the classroom organization. [Jiro Yoshimoto and Toshitaka Okada] Class organization and enrollmentClass organization has an educational administrative meaning of determining the relationship between groups of children and students and teachers, and is different from concrete class organization such as dividing classes within the same grade by proficiency level, ability, or birth month. Except in special circumstances, classes are organized with children and students of the same age in the same grade (single-grade class). In small schools, a class may be organized with several grades of children or students (multi-grade class). The standard for class organization refers to the number of children or students that can be enrolled in a class. The first law in Japan to set class organization standards was the "Subjects and Levels of Elementary Schools" based on the Elementary School Act of 1886 (Meiji 19), which set the number of children per teacher at ordinary elementary schools at 80 or less, and at higher elementary schools at 60 or less. This was followed by the aforementioned "Rules for Class Organization, etc." of 1891 (Meiji 24), which set the standard at 70 or less for ordinary elementary schools and 60 or less for higher elementary schools. At the same time, the principle of class organization by gender was set out, except for the first and second grades of ordinary elementary schools. After that, the National School Act of 1941 set the standard at 60 or less for elementary schools and 50 or less for higher elementary schools. Regarding high schools, the "Rules for the Organization and Facilities of Junior High Schools" of 1899 (Meiji 32) stipulated a maximum of 35 students, but just two years later in 1901 this was revised to a maximum of 50 students. After the Second World War, the 1947 (Showa 22) "School Education Law Enforcement Regulations (Articles 20 and 55)" stipulated that elementary and junior high schools should have a standard of 50 students or less, and that in principle, students should be organized with students of the same grade. However, in the 1950s, due to an increase in the number of students and worsening local finances, split-day classes in the morning and afternoon, and "overcrowded" classes with more than 50 students became social problems. To solve this problem, the "Law Concerning Standards for Class Organization and Teacher Quotas in Public Compulsory Education Schools" was enacted in 1958 (Showa 33), which aimed to gradually reduce classes to 40 students. The class size standards for each prefecture are set by the prefectural board of education, using the provisions of this law as a standard (Article 3). Furthermore, class organization is carried out by the board of education of the local public entity that establishes the school in question, in accordance with standards established by the prefectural board of education (Article 4), and city, town, and village boards of education must consult with and obtain the consent of the prefectural board of education regarding class organization and changes to compulsory education schools each school year. The current class organization standards are as follows (Article 3): (1) Elementary school: A class made up of students of the same grade will have 40 students, a class made up of students of both grades will have 16 students (8 students in a class including a first-grade student), and a special class will have 8 students. (2) Junior high school: Classes made up of students of the same grade have 40 students, classes made up of students from both grades have 8 students, and special classes have 8 students. The interpretation of Article 3 has gradually changed, with each prefectural board of education beginning to set its own standards, such as setting classes at 35 students, which is below the standard. In addition, with regard to public high schools, the "Standards for Establishment of High Schools," which was issued in 1948 and revised for the sixth time in 2000, stipulates that the "number of students in a class taking classes at the same time" must be 40 or less (Article 7). It is clear that the size of class sizes has a significant impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of education, with around 30 students being the general standard in advanced foreign countries. The Local Autonomy Comprehensive Law (abbreviation) enacted in July 1999 indicated a direction for building an equal relationship between the national government, prefectures, and municipalities, and guaranteed the autonomy and independence of municipalities in educational administration. Class sizes at the compulsory education level are related to the number of teaching staff, and affect the finances of the national and prefectural governments, but the nature of school management can change considerably through the independent and autonomous efforts of municipalities, such as hiring volunteer guest teachers and part-time lecturers. We look forward to the efforts of school operators to optimize class sizes. [Jiro Yoshimoto and Toshitaka Okada] Classroom collapseSince the 1990s, classroom collapse has become a serious problem in Japan. Classroom collapse can be described as "a state in which children behave in an unruly and disorderly manner during class, resulting in teachers' instructions not working, classes not being held, and the classroom becoming disorganized." The Ministry of Education (now the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) has traditionally taken a cautious stance on classroom collapse, calling it a "special case." However, serious complaints from schools have increased, and in 1999 (Heisei 11) a project team called the "Classroom Management Study Group" was formed, centered around researchers from the National Institute for Educational Research (now the National Institute for Educational Policy Research), to conduct case studies on classroom collapse and classroom management. According to the study group's report, the term "classroom collapse" was avoided, and the factors behind 102 classes in which "classes were not functioning well" were clarified. Of these factors, 70% were due to teachers' lack of leadership (expressed as "lack of flexibility in classroom management"), and other complex factors included "some children dissatisfied with the content and methods of lessons" (60%), "delayed appropriate responses to bullying and other problematic behavior" (40%), and "lack of established principal leadership or cooperation within the school" (30%). Additionally, "problems with discipline at home and with the school's response" and "lack of cooperation with preschool education" (10%) also accounted for about 10%. From this, it appears that teachers' lack of leadership is the main cause of classroom collapse, but there are also many cases where classroom collapse occurs even in classes taught by skilled, experienced teachers, so it cannot be said that the causes have necessarily been identified. The phenomenon of classroom collapse is a serious problem. [Jiro Yoshimoto and Toshitaka Okada] "Shimomura Tetsuo, Educational Studies Encyclopedia 14: Grade and Class Management (1982, Daiichi Hoki Publishing)" ▽ "Kawakami Ryoichi, School Collapse (1999, Soshisha)" ▽ "Mukaiyama Yoichi (ed.), Surviving Class Collapse (1999, Fusosha)" ▽ "Class Collapse (2001, Asahi Shimbun Publishing)" [References] | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
学校教育を行うにあたっての教育の単位組織。もともと学級という集団を組織して教育することは、同時に多数の児童・生徒を教えるという経済的理由に基づくものであるが、現代では学級の社会生活そのものに、より重要な教育的意義があると認められている。こうした教育事実上の意味とともに、学級編制という場合の「学級」のように、教職員の定数や施設・設備など、教育行政上の単位とされることもある。 [吉本二郎・岡東壽隆] 成立の歴史1890年(明治23)以前には、日本には現代的な意味の学級はなく、翌91年の文部省令によって、「学級編制等に関する規則」が定められ、「一人の本科正教員の一教室において同時に教授すべき一団の児童を学級と称する」とされた。このころになって、ようやく学校規模が拡大し、近代的組織をとらざるをえなかったのであろう。 西欧における学級組織による教育の発想はそれよりも古く、17世紀のコメニウスの学級教育の提案や、19世紀のイギリスのベルAndrew Bell(1753―1838)とランカスターJoseph Lancaster(1778―1838)による助教法(モニトリアル・システムmonitorial system)などは広く知られている。 今日でも、学級を基盤とする教育は基本ではあるが、1980年代中葉以降は、学校という物理的空間の多様化と教育情報機器の発達によって、学習形態が多様化し、規模的には個別化、大集団化している。物理的スペースが4間(約7メートル)×5間(約9メートル)の伝統的な教室だけでなく、多様なスペース(とくにオープンスペース)や、ときとしてアジール(保護施設)的空間を具備した学校建築が推奨されたことによる。1980年代前半の教育論議の中で「教育」から「学習」への転換が説かれ、その内容を反映した学習指導要領の改訂(1989)と連動して、学校建築も学習や学習者の行為に適合したスペースを備えたものに転換してきた。それと同時に、学級は教育の効率的な集団から、学習者の共同体としての集団という意味を深くしていく。 他方で、コンピュータをはじめとする情報技術の革新(IT化)は目覚ましく、インターネットや学内LANを通じて、学習情報を得る受動的な存在としての子供ではなく、それらマルチメディアを活用して学習する能動的な存在としての変化も見逃せない。学校教育において、双方向の遠隔学習を展開したり、1人1台のパソコンやLL(ランゲージ・ラボラトリー)を備えた教室で個別学習を行ったり、大きなスクリーンに映し出された映像をもとに、学級を超えたディベートを伴う授業を展開する例もある。また、このようなメディアを通じて、ほかの学校の教師による授業を受ける機会も散見されるようになってきた。このように教授・学習行為が多様化してきた今日、教授・学習組織としての学級の意義が問われているが、学校教育の大勢は、依然として学級組識に基礎を置いて展開されている。 [吉本二郎・岡東壽隆] 学級編制・定員学級編制は、児童・生徒の集団と教師との関係を定める教育行政上の意味をもち、同一学年内の学級を習熟度別や能力別にするか、生まれ月別にするかなどの具体的な学級編成とは異なる。特別の事情がある場合のほかは、学級は年齢を同じくする同学年の児童・生徒で編制される(単式学級)。小規模学校では数学年の児童や生徒で1学級を編制することもある(複式学級)。 学級編制の基準は、1学級に在籍する児童・生徒の定員数を意味する。わが国で最初の学級編制基準を定めた法令は1886年(明治19)の小学校令に基づく「小学校の学科及其程度」であり、尋常小学校は教師1人につき児童数80人以下、高等小学校は60人以下とされた。続いて、前述の1891年(明治24)「学級編制等に関する規則」では尋常小学校は70人以下、高等小学校は60人以下が基準とされた。それと同時に、尋常小学校の1、2学年を除いて男女別学級編制とする原則が示された。その後、1941年(昭和16)の国民学校令において初等科は60人以下、高等科は50人以下とされた。なお、高等学校については1899年(明治32)の「中学校編制及設備規則」で35人以下と定められたものの、わずか2年後の1901年には50人以下に改められた。 第二次世界大戦後は、1947年(昭和22)の「学校教育法施行規則(20条・55条)」により、小・中学校とも50人以下を標準とし、原則として同学年の児童・生徒で編制することが定められた。しかし、1950年代には児童・生徒数の増加や地方財政の悪化などにより、午前と午後の2部授業や、50人以上の「すし詰め学級」が社会問題となった。この問題を解消するため、1958年(昭和33年)には「公立義務教育諸学校の学級編制及び教職員定数の標準に関する法律」が成立し、段階的に40人学級が目ざされることとなった。各都道府県の1学級の基準は、本法律の規定を標準として都道府県教育委員会が定める(3条)。さらに、学級編制は都道府県の教育委員会が定めた基準に従って当該学校を設置する地方公共団体の教育委員会が行い(4条)、市町村の教育委員会は、毎学年、義務教育諸学校の学級編制とその変更について、都道府県の教育委員会と協議し、その同意を得なければならない。現在の学級編制基準は次のとおりである(3条)。 (1)小学校 同学年の児童で編制する学級は40人、二つの学年の児童で編制する学級は16人(第1学年の児童を含む学級にあっては8人)、特殊学級は8人。 (2)中学校 同学年の生徒で編制する学級は40人、二つの学年の生徒で編制する学級は8人、特殊学級は8人。 この第3条の解釈がしだいに変化し、各都道府県教育委員会が独自に、標準以下の35人学級などを規定するところも出てきた。 また、公立高等学校については、1948年(昭和23)に発令され2000年(平成12)に六度目の改正がなされた「高等学校設置基準」において、「同時に授業を受ける一学級の生徒数」は40人以下と定められている(7条)。 学級定員の大小は、教育の効果と効率に重要な影響をもつことは明らかで、先進的な諸外国ではおよそ30人程度が一般的水準である。1999年7月の「地方分権一括法」(略称)によって、国、都道府県、市町村の対等な関係を構築すべき方向性が示され、教育行政においても市町村の自主性・自律性が担保された。義務教育段階の学級定員は教職員の定数と関係し、国や都道府県の財政にも影響を及ぼすが、ボランティアのゲストティーチャーや非常勤講師の採用など市町村の自主的・自律的な努力によって学校管理の態様は相当に変化する。学級定員の適正化に向けた学校設置者の努力が期待される。 [吉本二郎・岡東壽隆] 学級の崩壊1990年代以降日本では、学級の崩壊が深刻な問題となっている。「学級崩壊」とは「子どもが授業中に秩序無く気ままな行動をし、その結果、教師の指導が通用しない、授業そのものが成立しない、教室内が無秩序化した状態」といえる。文部省(現文部科学省)は従来から、学級崩壊を「特殊なケース」として、慎重な姿勢をとってきた。しかし、学校現場からの深刻な訴えが増え、1999年(平成11)、学級崩壊の実態や学級経営の事例研究を実施することとし、国立教育研究所(現国立教育政策研究所)の研究者を中心にプロジェクトチーム「学級経営研究会」が設置された。同研究会の報告によると、「学級崩壊」ということばの使用を避け、「学級がうまく機能しない状況」にある102学級の要因を明らかにした。それらの要因のうち、教師の指導力不足(「学級経営に柔軟性を欠く」と表現)が7割を占め、このほかの複合的な要因として「授業の内容・方法に不満をもつ子供がいる」が6割、「いじめなどの問題行動への適切な対応が遅れた」が約4割、「校長のリーダーシップや校内の連携・協力が確立していない」が約3割であった。また、「家庭のしつけや学校の対応に問題」「就学前教育との連携・協力が不足」という要因も約1割を占めていた。ここから教師の指導力不足が学級崩壊の主因とみられるが、力量のあるベテラン教師が担任する学級でも学級崩壊が起きている例も多く、要因をかならずしも同定しているとはいえない。学級崩壊の現象は深刻な問題となっている。 [吉本二郎・岡東壽隆] 『下村哲夫著『教育学大全集14 学年・学級の経営』(1982・第一法規出版)』▽『河上亮一著『学校崩壊』(1999・草思社)』▽『向山洋一編著『学級崩壊からの生還』(1999・扶桑社)』▽『朝日新聞社会部著『学級崩壊』(2001・朝日新聞社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
…The present name is Yorghan Tepe. However, the s...
There is an objective difference between the value...
…Italian architect. He led the Roman Baroque afte...
〘Name〙 A seal engraved with a pen name. ※Kanjimimo...
Year of death: September 8, 1882 (Meiji 15) Year o...
… Founded in 1871 as Thyssen Limited Partnership ...
Born June 29, 1918 in Kankakee, Illinois. American...
...However, as shown by the fact that in 978 (Ten...
…Ray Connolly's documentary film James Dean: ...
…Counterfeiting has been rampant in the United St...
...A general term for the three ethnic groups of ...
Palais de l'Élysée (France) The official resid...
…It is also called filigree. It is a translation ...
...They have succulent leaves, but lack stipules,...
Long-term average values of meteorological eleme...