Negligence - Fault

Japanese: 過失 - かしつ
Negligence - Fault

Generally speaking, when there is a possibility of a result occurring, negligence means that the actor could have foreseen the occurrence of the result if he or she had been careful, but failed to recognize it due to carelessness (i.e., not being careful when one should have been). Carelessness means violating the duty of care. It is distinguished from "intention" when one is aware of the occurrence of a result. In legal terms, negligence is a form/element of responsibility that is on par with intent, and is premised on the absence of intent.

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Criminal negligence

Based on the principle of responsibility, which is one of the basic principles of criminal law, in order for a crime to be established, the perpetrator must be found to have either intent or negligence, and acts that are unavoidable or without negligence cannot be punished. Moreover, crimes are generally committed with intent, and negligence is not a crime unless there is a provision by law that specifically punishes it (Article 38, Paragraph 1 of the Penal Code). However, with today's remarkable development of science and technology and industry, and with society becoming more complex, negligence, especially professional negligence, has become important for dangerous activities that are repeated and continued, such as traffic accidents, medical accidents, and corporate disasters (note that negligence in driving a car is punishable as negligent driving resulting in death or injury under Article 211, Paragraph 2 of the Penal Code, regardless of whether it is professional or not). Furthermore, in the field of administrative criminal law, negligence is widely punished along with intent, and negligence is a typical example of a "modern crime."

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Elements of criminal negligence

For a crime of negligence to be established, it is necessary to meet the general requirements of a crime that are also common to crimes of intent, such as objective requirements such as the act of execution, result, and causation. The subjective requirements specific to a crime of negligence are, as a negative requirement, the absence of intent, and, as a positive requirement, the perpetrator must be found to have been careless, i.e., to have violated the duty of care. This violation of the duty of care is the core requirement specific to a crime of negligence.

Generally, there are two elements of the duty of care: the duty to avoid consequences and the duty to foresee consequences. The duty to avoid consequences is the duty to take specific measures (action or omission) to prevent the occurrence of a consequence when there is a risk of the consequence occurring and this consequence can be avoided. The duty to foresee consequences is the duty to foresee the consequence when there is a risk of the consequence occurring. This duty is premised on the foreseeability of the occurrence of the consequence, so foreseeability is important in determining it.

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Duty of care and the old and new debate over negligence

There has been lively debate over which of the obligations of care, the obligation to foresee the result or the obligation to avoid the result, should be emphasized, and what should be the standard for judgment. This conflict is called the "new vs. old negligence debate." The old theory of negligence generally explains that "since negligence is a subjective element (element of responsibility) related to the psychological state of the perpetrator, the essence of the duty of care is the obligation to foresee the result and its prerequisite, the foreseeability (subjective duty of care)." In contrast, the new theory of negligence points out that "negligence is not limited to an element of responsibility related to the subjective state of the perpetrator, and as a prerequisite, it is more important whether or not the duty of care generally required in social life (objective duty of care) was fulfilled, so the obligation to avoid the result as a constituent element or element of illegality is essential."

However, today, regardless of the position taken, for a negligent crime to exist, both objective and subjective elements are necessary, just as in the case of an intentional crime, and therefore both the obligation to avoid consequences and the obligation to foresee consequences are generally required as elements of the duty of care (however, there remain issues of so-called systematic theory, such as whether these obligations belong to the category of constituent elements, illegal elements, or elements of responsibility).

Regarding the foreseeability of the result, which is a prerequisite for the duty to foresee the result, the question of what facts and to what degree of foresight are required was also a major issue in the debate between the old and new negligence. The old negligence theory emphasizes the duty to foresee the result, and interprets it as requiring the perpetrator to have specific foreseeability, but the new negligence theory emphasizes the duty to avoid the result, and the duty to foresee the result does not necessarily require specific foreseeability, and some even hold that a feeling of anxiety or fear is sufficient (such views are called the "feeling of fear theory" or the "new new negligence theory"). On this point, in today's case law, it is interpreted as sufficient if there is specific foreseeability of the "basic or important parts" of the causal process, and many academics support this view.

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Administrative regulations and criminal negligence

When determining whether or not there is a duty of care, particularly a duty to avoid consequences, as an element of a negligent crime, administrative regulations such as the Road Traffic Act are not the basis for the duty of care. For example, if a person drives a car and causes the death or injury of a pedestrian, the violation of the speed limit does not necessarily mean that there was a violation of the duty of care under the Criminal Code (negligent crime). A violation of administrative regulations does not immediately mean that there was a violation of the duty of care, and conversely, compliance with administrative regulations does not mean that one can be exempt from a violation of the duty of care.

Therefore, the existence of a duty of care must be judged on a case-by-case basis in accordance with each specific case, and there is a concept called the "principle of trust" for this judgment. This principle was originally proposed for road traffic cases, and it states that traffic participants are allowed to trust the other party's legal and appropriate behavior, and that even if a result occurs due to the other party's illegal or inappropriate behavior, the perpetrator is not liable for criminal negligence. For this principle to apply, (1) the perpetrator actually trusted the other party's legal and appropriate behavior (fact of trust), and (2) it is deemed reasonable for the perpetrator to trust that (reasonableness of trust). This principle of trust can be widely applied in vehicle-to-vehicle relationships, but in vehicle-to-pedestrian relationships, its application must be cautious under today's road conditions in Japan. Furthermore, since the principle of trust is originally premised on a relationship in which both parties are able to avoid danger on an equal footing and are responsible for it, it is questionable to generally apply this principle in cases of a hierarchical relationship between a supervisor and a supervised person, such as supervisory negligence in a corporate accident. As mentioned above, whether or not a duty of care exists should be determined on a case-by-case basis in accordance with each specific case.

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Types of negligence

There are several important classifications of negligence:

(1) "Real negligence" and "unrecognized negligence" Regarding this point, if we assume the theory of admission, which distinguishes between reckless intent and real negligence based on the presence or absence of admission (acceptance) of the criminal facts, then when there is awareness of the criminal facts but no admission, it is "real negligence," and when there is no awareness of the criminal facts, it is "unrecognized negligence."

(2) "Professional negligence" and "negligent driving" Professional negligence occurs when a person who repeatedly and continuously engages in activities that pose a risk of violating certain legal interests in social life fails to exercise the care required for such activities, while ordinary negligence occurs when ordinary people fail to exercise care. The "work" referred to here is unrelated to work or occupation, so acts done for leisure also fall into this category. Also, since it does not matter whether the act is legal or illegal, for example, even unlicensed medical practice is considered to be work as long as it is repeated or continued.

In the past, accidents resulting in death or injury caused by driving a motor vehicle were the typical example of professional negligence crimes, and accounted for the majority of such crimes. However, as such incidents became more frequent and became a major social problem, a new crime, negligent driving resulting in death or injury, was created in 2007 under Article 211, paragraph 2 of the Penal Code, which made it possible to punish more severely than professional negligence resulting in death or injury to "a person who fails to exercise the necessary care in driving a motor vehicle and thereby causes death or injury to another person" (however, if the injury is minor, the punishment may be waived depending on the circumstances). Negligence in driving a motor vehicle (including motorcycles and mopeds) is sufficient, and does not require repetition or continuity as in the case of professional negligence, so even if it is the first time someone has driven without a license, this crime may be committed.

In addition, under current law there is a concept of "gross negligence," which refers to a case where a consequence could have been foreseen with a little care, but this care was not exercised.

[Tetsuro Nawa]

Negligence under civil law

Unlike criminal law, civil law generally does not distinguish between intent and negligence as reasons for liability, regarding them as being of roughly equal value. Negligence as such is a requirement that produces various legal effects in various areas of civil law. The most important are negligence as a requirement for tort liability (Article 709 of the Civil Code) and "reasonable grounds" as a requirement for liability for breach of contract (the debtor's intent, negligence, and reasons that should be considered the same under the principle of good faith).

[Takahisa Awaji]

Abstract negligence/concrete negligence

Negligence is divided into abstract negligence and concrete negligence, depending on the nature of the duty of care that is the premise of it. Abstract negligence refers to a lack of the care that an ordinary person, average person, or standard person should take, in other words, the "care of a good manager" (Civil Code Articles 400, 644, etc.). However, the ordinary person, average person, and standard person referred to here refer to an abstract reasonable person expected in each specific case depending on the person's social status and occupation, and do not simply refer to an abstract ordinary person. Negligence as a requirement for tort liability is considered to be abstract negligence in this sense, and in that sense, the original principle of negligence liability has been transformed and negligence has been objectified. In addition, abstract negligence is the standard for negligence in breach of contract as a general rule.

Specific negligence refers to a lack of ordinary care in accordance with a person's real life, i.e., "the same care as with one's own property" (Article 659 of the same act), "the same care as for one's own benefit" (Article 827 of the same act), "the same care as with personal property" (Article 918 of the same act, etc.), etc. Using specific negligence as the standard for negligence is now an exception, as seen in the case of gratuitous depositaries (Article 659 of the same act), parents who manage a child's property (Article 827 of the same act), and heirs who have not yet decided whether to accept or renounce (Article 918 of the same act).

[Takahisa Awaji]

Slight negligence/gross negligence

Negligence is divided into slight negligence and gross negligence depending on the degree of the breach of the duty of care. Slight negligence is a slight breach of the duty of care, while gross negligence is a serious breach of the duty of care. This distinction is made for each of the abstract negligence and concrete negligence mentioned above, so in theory, negligence is divided into four types: abstract slight negligence, abstract gross negligence, concrete slight negligence, and concrete gross negligence. However, with regard to concrete negligence, only slight negligence is an issue, and in practice, concrete gross negligence is not required. Negligence as a requirement for the establishment of tort liability is considered to mean (abstract) slight negligence. However, in the case of liability for negligence, (abstract) gross negligence is required along with intent, and slight negligence is excluded (Law Concerning Liability for Negligence, Law No. 40 of 1899).

The general principle of tort (Article 709 of the Civil Code) is that the burden of proof of negligence is on the victim, but in so-called special torts under Articles 714 and onwards, the burden is shifted to the tortfeasor (known in theory as intermediate liability). In the case of a breach of contract, negligence is presumed, and the debtor must prove that he or she was not negligent.

[Takahisa Awaji]

[References] | Negligence liability principle | Contributory negligence | Crime of negligence resulting in death or injury | Negligence | Professional negligence | Fire liability law | Gross negligence | Conscious negligence | Tortoise | Reckless intent

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一般に、結果発生の可能性がある場合、行為者が注意をすれば、この結果の発生を予見しえたのにもかかわらず、不注意によって認識しないこと(すなわち、注意すべきであるのに注意しなかったこと)を意味する。不注意とは、注意義務に違反することをいう。結果の発生を認識した場合の「故意」と区別される。法律用語としては、過失は故意と並ぶ責任の形式・要素であり、故意がないことが前提となる。

[名和鐵郎]

刑法上の過失

刑法上の基本原則の一つである責任主義に基づき、犯罪が成立するためには、行為者に故意または過失が認められなければならず、不可抗力や無過失による行為は処罰できない。しかも、犯罪は原則として故意犯であり、過失は、法令により特別に処罰する旨の規定がなければ犯罪とはならない(刑法38条1項)。ただ、今日のように科学技術や産業の発達が目覚ましく、しかも社会が複雑化するのに伴い、たとえば交通事故、医療事故、企業災害など、反覆継続して行われる危険な活動については、過失犯、とくに業務上過失が重要な意味をもっている(なお、自動車運転上の過失による場合は、業務上であるか否かを問わず、刑法第211条2項の自動車運転過失致死傷罪として処罰される)。さらに行政刑法の領域では故意犯とともに過失犯が広く処罰されており、過失犯はまさに「現代型犯罪」の典型であるといえる。

[名和鐵郎]

過失犯の成立要素

過失犯が成立するためには、故意犯とも共通する犯罪の一般的要件、たとえば実行行為、結果、因果関係など客観的要件を満たすことが必要である。そして、過失犯に固有の主観的要件は、消極的要件としては、故意が存在しないことであり、積極的要件としては、行為者に不注意、すなわち注意義務違反が認められなければならない。この注意義務違反こそ過失犯特有の中核的要件である。

 注意義務の要素として、一般的に、結果回避義務と結果予見義務の二つがあげられている。結果回避義務とは、結果発生の危険があり、しかもこの結果が回避できる場合に、結果発生を防止するための具体的措置(作為または不作為)を講じるべき義務をいう。また、結果予見義務とは、結果発生の危険がある場合に、この結果を予見すべき義務である。この義務は、結果発生が予見できることを前提とするから、その判断にあたって予見可能性が重要な意味をもつ。

[名和鐵郎]

注意義務と新旧過失論争

注意義務における結果予見義務と結果回避義務のうち、いずれに重点を置くべきか、また、だれを基準として判断すべきかなどが活発に議論されてきた。「新旧過失論争」とよばれる対立がそれである。旧過失論は一般に、「過失は行為者の心理面に係る主観的要素(責任要素)であるから、あくまで結果予見義務およびその前提としての予見可能性(主観的注意義務)こそ注意義務の本質である」と説明する。これに対して新過失論は、「過失は行為者の主観面に係る責任要素にとどまらず、その前提として、まず社会生活において一般的に必要とされる注意義務(客観的注意義務)を尽くしたか否かがより重要であるから、構成要件または違法の要素としての結果回避義務が本質的である」と指摘する。

 しかし、今日では、いずれの立場においても、過失犯が成立するためには、故意犯の場合と同様に、客観的要素と主観的要素が必要であるから、一般的には注意義務の要素として結果回避義務と結果予見義務の両方が要求されている(ただ、これらの義務が、構成要件要素、違法要素、責任要素のいずれに属するかなどのいわゆる体系論の問題は残る)。

 そして、結果予見義務の前提としての結果予見可能性に関して、どのような事実に対して、どの程度の予見を要するかについても、新旧過失論争では大きな問題とされた。旧過失論では、結果予見義務を重視する立場から、当該行為者における具体的な予見可能性を要すると解されるが、新過失論では、結果回避義務が強調され、結果予見義務については必ずしも具体的予見可能性を要しないとされて、そのなかには不安感・危惧(きぐ)感で足りるとする見解さえみられる(このような見解は、「危惧感説」とか「新々過失論」とよばれる)。この点について、今日の判例では、因果経過の「基本的または重要な部分」について具体的な予見可能性があれば足りると解されており、学説においてもこのような見解を支持する者が多い。

[名和鐵郎]

行政取締法規と刑事過失

過失犯の成立要素としての注意義務、とくに結果回避義務の存否を判断するにあたり、道路交通法のような行政取締法規は注意義務の根拠とはならない。たとえば、自動車を運転して通行人を死傷させた場合、速度超過違反によって刑法上の注意義務違反(過失犯)を肯定してよいわけではない。行政取締法規違反があったからといってただちに注意義務違反があったとはいえないし、逆に、行政取締法規を遵守していたからといって注意義務違反を免れうるわけではないのである。

 そこで、注意義務の存否は具体的事案に即して個別的に判断せざるをえないが、この判断にあたり「信頼の原則」という考え方がある。これは、もともと道路交通事件につき提唱されたものであり、交通関与者は相手方の適法・適切な行動を信頼することが許され、かりに相手方が不適法・不適切な行動に出たことにより結果が発生しても、行為者は刑法上の過失責任を負わない、というものである。この原則が適用されるためには、(1)行為者が相手方の適法・適切な行動を現に信頼していたこと(信頼の事実)、(2)行為者がそれを信頼することも相当と認められること(信頼の相当性)が必要である。この信頼の原則は車両対車両の関係では広く適用されうるが、車両対歩行者との関係では、今日の日本の道路事情のもとでは、その適用も慎重でなければならない。さらに、信頼の原則は、本来、対等な立場で危険を回避しうるし、またその責任を負うという関係を前提とするから、企業災害に対する監督過失のように監督者と被監督者といった上下関係にある場合には、この原則を一般的に適用することには疑問がある。前述したように、注意義務の存否は具体的事案に即して個別的に判断されるべきであるからである。

[名和鐵郎]

過失の種類

過失には、次のようにいくつかの重要な分類がある。

(1)「認識のある過失」と「認識のない過失」 この点につき、未必の故意と認識のある過失とを犯罪事実に対する認容(容認)の有無により区別する認容説を前提とすれば、犯罪事実の認識はあるが、この認容がなければ「認識のある過失」であり、犯罪事実の認識がない場合が「認識のない過失」である。

(2)「業務上過失」と「自動車運転過失」 業務上過失とは、社会生活上、一定の法益を侵害する危険性のある活動を反覆・継続して行っている者が、そのような活動に要求される注意を怠った場合であり、これ以外の一般人が注意を怠った場合が通常の過失である。ここにいう「業務」とは仕事や職業とは無関係であるから、遊びのための行為もこれにあたり、また、適法・違法を問わないから、たとえば、無資格の医療行為の場合でも反覆・継続している限り、業務にあたる。

 かつては、自動車運転による死傷事故が、業務上過失事犯の典型であり、その大部分を占めていた。しかし、自動車運転による死傷事件が頻発し、大きな社会問題となるなかで、2007年(平成19)、刑法第211条2項として自動車運転過失致死傷罪が新設され、「自動車の運転上必要な注意を怠り、よって人を死傷させた者」は業務上過失致死傷罪より重く処罰できることとなった(ただし、傷害が軽い場合には、情状により、その刑が免除されうる)。自動車(自動二輪車、原動機付自転車も含まれる)運転上の過失があれば足り、業務上過失の場合のように反覆または継続性を要しないから、初めての無免許運転の場合でも本罪にあたりうる。

 なお、現行法上「重過失」という概念があるが、これはわずかの注意を払えば結果発生を予見できたのに、この注意を欠いた場合をいう。

[名和鐵郎]

民法上の過失

刑法と異なり、民法では一般に、帰責事由としては、故意、過失をほとんど同価値とみて区別しないのが原則である。このようなものとしての過失は、民法の種々の領域において、それぞれの法律効果を生ずる要件となっている。もっとも重要なものとして、不法行為責任成立要件としての過失(民法709条)、および債務不履行責任成立要件としての「責めに帰すべき事由」(債務者の故意、過失および信義則上それと同一視すべき事由)である。

[淡路剛久]

抽象的過失・具体的過失

過失はその前提となる注意義務の性質により、抽象的過失と具体的過失とに区別される。抽象的過失とは、抽象的に一般人、普通人、標準人としてなすべき注意、すなわち「善良な管理者の注意」(民法400条、644条ほか)を欠いた場合をいう。ただし、ここにいう一般人、普通人、標準人とは、その人の属する社会的地位や職業などに応じて、それぞれの具体的事例において期待される抽象的合理人のことをさし、ただ単に抽象的一般人をいうのではない。不法行為責任要件としての過失は、まさにこのようなものとしての抽象的過失であるとされており、その意味で本来の過失責任主義は変容を受け、過失の客観化がなされている。そのほか、債務不履行でも原則として抽象的過失が過失の基準となる。

 具体的過失とは、その人の現実生活に応じた通常の注意、すなわち「自己の財産に対するのと同一の注意」(同法659条)、「自己のためにするのと同一の注意」(同法827条)、「固有財産におけるのと同一の注意」(同法918条ほか)、などを欠いた場合をいう。具体的過失を過失の基準とすることは、今日では例外となっており、無償受寄者(同法659条)、子の財産管理をなす親権者(同法827条)、承認・放棄未定の相続人(同法918条)にその例がみられる。

[淡路剛久]

軽過失・重過失

過失は注意義務違反の程度に応じて、軽過失と重過失に区別される。軽過失は軽度の注意義務違反であり、重過失は重大な注意義務違反である。この区別は、前に述べた抽象的過失・具体的過失のそれぞれについてなされるから、過失は、理論上は抽象的軽過失、抽象的重過失、具体的軽過失、具体的重過失の四つに区分されることになる。しかし、具体的過失については軽過失だけが問題とされ、具体的重過失を要件とすることは、実際上見当たらない。不法行為責任成立要件としての過失は、(抽象的)軽過失を意味するものとされる。ただし失火責任の場合には、(抽象的)重過失が故意とともに要件とされ、軽過失の場合を除外している(失火ノ責任ニ関スル法律・明治32年法律第40号)。

 過失の立証責任は、不法行為の一般原則(民法709条)では被害者側にあるが、第714条以下のいわゆる特殊的不法行為では加害者に転換されている(講学上、中間的責任という)。債務不履行の場合、過失は推定され、債務者側が無過失の立証をしなければならない。

[淡路剛久]

[参照項目] | 過失責任主義 | 過失相殺 | 過失致死傷罪 | 過失犯 | 業務上過失 | 失火責任法 | 重過失 | 認識ある過失 | 不法行為 | 未必の故意

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Oryx gazella (English spelling) Oryxgazella

...Shoulder height 85-140cm, body length 160-235c...

Public official - Kujiya

In the late Middle Ages, these were powerful farme...

Cobalt fluoride (Fukakobalto)

Compounds in oxidation states II and III are known...

Divided writing - Wakachigaki

In orthography, a certain unit (split-word unit) i...

Synoptic oceanography

...However, many people use the terms interchange...

Hipparos' Wind - Hipparos' Wind

A monsoon used in trade connecting India with the ...

Whitford, AE (English spelling)

…There is a considerable amount of interstellar a...

Monkey Bridge - Saruhashi

A bridge over the Katsuragawa River in Otsuki Cit...

Albertazzi, Adolfo

Born: September 8, 1865 in Bologna [Died] May 10, ...

Fernico

…Kovar is the trade name for an alloy of nickel, ...

Mount Kumotori

A mountain that stands on the border of Tokyo, Sa...

Greece

…In Latin, it is Graecia, and in modern European ...

Conformation - Rittaihaiza (English spelling) conformation

This refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms t...

Galeatus spinifrons (English spelling)

...Some species transmit plant pathogens such as ...

Frequency meter

A general term for measuring instruments that mea...