mushā' (English spelling) musha

However, the process of its development and the form of land management there have been considerable variations even within the Arab region, which is often discussed as a whole, due to differences in natural, social, economic, and historical environments such as the existence and management of water resources, the intensity of agriculture, the penetration of commercial crops, the nature of central authority, and the influence of nomadic societies. In Syria, Palestine, and Iraq, in many areas, direct cultivators cultivated land under a communal cultivation practice called mushā', which involved a certain land allocation, and on top of that, the rights of local influential people, such as nomadic chiefs, who mainly had the right to collect taxes, were superimposed. In the 19th century, along with the spread of commercial crop cultivation and the introduction of modern ideas of land ownership, a phenomenon of land concentration among certain classes was observed, but the process was generally a process in which the former feudal class became modern large landowners and reorganized all the direct cultivators who had cultivated the land under communal practices as tenant farmers or agricultural laborers.

*Some of the terminology explanations that mention "mushā'" are listed below.

Source | Heibonsha World Encyclopedia 2nd Edition | Information

…もっとも，その発生過程，そこでの土地経営形態は，水資源の存在･管理形態，農業の集約度，商品作物の浸透度，中央権力のあり方，遊牧民社会の影響等々の自然･社会･経済･歴史的環境の違いによって，ともすれば一括して論じられることの多いアラブ地域内においても，相当な変異が見られた。　シリア，パレスティナ，イラク地方については，その多くの地域において，直接耕作者はムシャーmushā‘と呼ばれる，ある種の土地割替を伴う共同体的耕作慣行のもとで土地耕作にあたり，その上に，徴税請負権を中心とした地方有力者，遊牧民首長など，いわば領主階層の諸権利が重ね合わされていた。19世紀に入り商品作物栽培の普及，近代的土地所有観念の導入と相まって，特定の階層への土地集積現象が見られたが，その過程はおおむね，それまでの旧領主階層が近代的大地主として，共同体的慣行のもとで土地耕作にあたっていた直接耕作者をまるごと小作人あるいは農業労働者として再組織するという過程であった。…

※「mushā‘」について言及している用語解説の一部を掲載しています。

出典｜株式会社平凡社世界大百科事典 第２版について | 情報