Ryo - Ryo

Japanese: 遼 - りょう

The Chinese-style name of the state founded by the Khitan (907-1125). Its official name is "Great Liao State" or "Great Khitan State." The Khitan are a Mongolian ethnic group who were nomads in the Shiramuran River basin in the eastern Khingan Mountains around the 4th century, but migrated south in the 5th century and lived in Yingzhou (Chaoyang, Liaoning Province). However, after being attacked by the Tang army in 696, they moved and established their base near the confluence of the Shiramuran River and the Laoha River. Yelu Abo-ji, who later became the founder of the Liao Dynasty, was from the Dipa tribe and grew up to become the head of the Dipa tribe, and then became Yue (commander in chief of the military forces) under Khan Hinder. He then dismantled the tribal alliance that had been established by mutual election of rulers, ascended to the throne in 907 (first accession), and founded the Great Khitan Kingdom. Abo-ji crossed the Great Wall several times to invade northern China, captured many Han people, moved them to his territory, built castles and made them live collectively, and engaged in agricultural production and crafts, building the economic foundation for the founding of the Liao Dynasty and working to strengthen the sovereignty. In 916, he was given the Chinese-style title of emperor by his ministers and named the era name Shensaku (second accession). From June 924 to September 925, Aboji attacked Soboku (Tatars), Dangxiang (Tanguts), and Tuyuhun, and in December of the same year, he sent troops to the Balhae Kingdom, which he destroyed in 926, renamed it Dongdan, appointed the crown prince Bae as the king of Dongdan, and died on his way home in July of the same year. Aboji's second son, Deguang (Gyogu), then ascended to the throne and became Taizong.

Taizong focused his efforts on the strategy for mainland China, and intervened in the turmoil in northern China. In 936, he assisted Shi Jingtang in destroying the Later Tang Dynasty, establishing the Later Jin Dynasty, and forcing the 16 prefectures of Yanyun to be ceded to him by treaty. This gave the Khitan direct control over the Chinese farmers, and this marked the beginning of a transformation in Khitan culture, systems, and politics. Taizong led an army against the Later Jin Dynasty in 943, but was defeated. He also led an army in 946, destroying the Later Jin Dynasty, and entered Bian Prefecture (Kaifeng) in the first month of 947, and in February of the same year, named the state the Great Liao Dynasty. Taizong attempted to rule China from Bianzhou, but Khitan soldiers plundered and executed the property of the Han people, causing resentment among the Han people and losing the support of the people, resulting in failure to rule China. Taizong died in his camp on his way home in April of the same year. During the reigns of the third king, Sejong, and the fourth king, Mujong, there were successive civil wars within the family, national politics were unstable, and Mujong was killed by his attendant.

During the reign of the fifth emperor, Jingzong, relations with the Song dynasty were normalized, and a peaceful relationship continued between the two countries. In 982, Jingzong died, and the sixth emperor, Shengzong, ascended to the throne at the age of 12. Shengzong dispatched forces to the Jurchen dynasty in 983 and invaded the state of Ding'an in 985, but the Song dynasty took advantage of this opportunity to dispatch forces to regain the Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun, but was defeated. Shengzong dispatched forces to the Song dynasty in 1004, and Song's Zhenzong also personally invaded Chanzhou, but a peace agreement was concluded between the two countries (the Alliance of Chanyuan) on the condition that the Song dynasty present 200,000 pieces of silk and 100,000 taels of silver to the Liao dynasty every year, and peace was restored. After the Chanyuan treaty, the Song established trading posts in Xiongzhou and other areas, and the Liao established trading posts in Xincheng, Yizhou, and Shuozhou to trade with the Song. Tea, silk, and incense were exported from the Song to the Liao, and horses, sheep, furs, and jewels were exported from the Liao to the Song. In addition to trading posts under government supervision, smuggling was also carried out, and after the Chanyuan treaty, huge amounts of annual gifts were sent from the Song to the Liao every year. Thus, the Chanyuan treaty marked a turning point for the Liao, which achieved remarkable economic and social development and enjoyed a golden age for 100 years under the three reigns of Shengzong, Xingzong, and Daozong. The power of the Liao dynasty began to decline under the reign of the 9th Emperor Tianjo, grandson of Daozong. After 1114, the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchens attacked the Liao dynasty. In 1125, Emperor Tianjo was captured by the Jurchens and the Liao dynasty was destroyed. However, Yelu Dashi, grandson of the 8th Emperor Taizu of the Liao dynasty, fled westward with his family and established the Western Liao Dynasty, based in Hus-Ordo (also called Belasagun, near present-day Tokmok) in Central Asia. The Western Liao Dynasty is also known as Kara-Khitai (Black Khitan).

[Yoshihiro Kawachi]

Government

The Liao government system changed over time, but during the reign of Emperor Taizong, as the Liao dynasty's power expanded into northern China, the traditional native system (the Northern System) was used to govern the Khitans and other nomadic peoples, while the Chinese system (the Southern System) was adopted to govern settled agricultural peoples such as the Han, Bohai, and Goryeo peoples. The highest administrative body of the Northern System was the Northern Privy Council, which controlled the military and civil administration of the Khitans and the military administration of the agricultural peoples. Under the jurisdiction of the Northern Privy Council were offices such as the Northern and Southern Prime Ministers' Offices (tribal administration), the Northern and Southern Xuanhuiyuan (construction), the Dayu Yuefu, the Yili Biyuan (prisons), the Dailingayuan (documents), and the Tekiretsuma Tosi (ceremonies). The nobles who were treated as imperial or quasi-imperial members of the Khitan were called the Cho clans, and there were four major Cho clans: the Yoren Kyucho, the Imperial Chou, the Kokufucho, and the Kokufubyebe, each of which had its own tribe. The tribes were divided into large tribes (Five Courts, Six Courts, Yilsibu, and Keisuibu) and small tribes (48 clans including the Shinbu), and the government offices that governed the large tribes were the North and South Great King's Court, the Yilsi Great King's Office, and the King's Office, while the small tribes were administered by the Tribe Situ Office, Tribe Jiedoshi, and Tribe Shouonsi. The highest administrative organ of the Nanmyeon system was the Southern Privy Council, which was modeled after the Tang system and had three ministries and six departments, and was responsible for the civil administration of the agricultural people. The prefecture system, exactly the same as that of China, was implemented as a local administrative organ for the settled agricultural people. When the Khitans invaded China, they plundered the farmers and relocated them to their territories, naming them prefectures and counties after the names of the farmers' original habitats. These prefectures and counties were called Tou-Xia Prefectures or Tou-Xia Jun. The prefectures and counties directly under the emperor were called Orudo (palace guard) prefectures, and the prefectures serving the emperor's tombs were called Fengling Villages.

[Yoshihiro Kawachi]

Society and Culture

During the Liao Dynasty, the Khitan were all divided into two surnames, Yelu (Ira) and Shemi (Shima, Xiao). The Yelu and Shemi surnames were exogamy units (phratry), with the Yelu having the horse as their totem and the Shemi (Shima, Xiao) being blood-related groups with the ox as their totem, and they also formed exogamy units with each other. The Khitan ethnic belief was shamanism, and shamans played an important role in clan rituals and when people were ill. However, after the founding of the state, Buddhism and Taoism were also adopted, Chinese monks were invited, and Buddhist temples and pagodas were built all over the country. Representative examples of Buddhist architecture are brick pagodas, and famous examples include the multi-angled pagoda of Jiafu Temple in Yixian, Liaoning Province, the South Pagoda of Lindong City in Balin Zuoqi, and the White Pagoda of Baitazi in Balin Zuoqi. Many wooden buildings remain, including the wooden pagoda of Fogong Temple in Yingxian, Shanxi Province, as well as many other Buddhist buildings. As their ethnic consciousness grew, the Khitan also created their own writing system, known as the Khitan script. This influenced the Western Xia, Jurchen, and other peoples, and became a pioneer in the creation of each ethnic group's own writing system. The Khitan have also passed on to future generations high-quality cultural artifacts in the fields of art and crafts. In terms of painting, the landscapes and figure paintings on the murals of the Qingling Mausoleum are excellent works that, while using techniques from the Tang dynasty, depict the scenery of the Khitan region, and in terms of ceramics, there are many masterpieces with unique designs, such as long vases, pouch vases, Liao san-cai ware, and white porcelain.

[Yoshihiro Kawachi]

``Study of the Chinese Conquest Dynasty'' by Jitsuzo Tamura (1st 1964, Oriental History Study Group, 2nd 1985, Dohosha Publishing)' ' ▽ ``Study of Liao Dynasty Social History'' by Masao Shimada (1952, Sanwa Shobo) ▽ ``Study of the Liao Dynasty'' by Masao Shimada (1954, Nakazawa Printing)''

[Reference items] | Kala Khitai | Khitan | Khitan characters | Qingling

Liao (Yelü clan) / Brief family tree
©Shogakukan ">

Liao (Yelü clan) / Brief family tree

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

契丹(きったん)の建てた国家の中国式国号（907～1125）。正式には「大遼国」または「大契丹国」という。契丹はモンゴル系の民族集団で、4世紀ころ興安嶺(こうあんれい)東部のシラムレン川流域に遊牧していたが、5世紀には南方に移住し営州（遼寧(りょうねい／リヤオニン)省朝陽(ちょうよう／チャオヤン)）に住んだ。しかし、696年唐軍の討伐を受けて移動し、シラムレン川とラオハ（老哈）川との合流点付近に本拠を移した。のちに遼の太祖となった耶律阿保機(やりつあぼき)は迭剌(てつら)部の出身で、成長して迭剌部夷离菫(いりきん)（部長）となり、ついで痕徳菫可汗(こんとくきんかかん)のもとで于越(うえつ)（兵馬総指揮官）となった。そして、それまでの君長互選制による部族連合体を解体し、907年即位し（第一次即位）、大契丹国を建てた。阿保機は幾度か長城を越えて華北に侵入し、多数の漢人を捕らえて領内に移し、城を築いて集団的に居住させ、農耕生産や工芸などに従事させ、遼国建国の経済的基盤を築き、君主権の強化に努め、916年、群臣から中国風に皇帝の尊号を受け、年号を神冊(しんさく)と定めた（第二次即位）。阿保機は924年6月から925年9月に至るまで阻卜(そぼく)（タタール）、党項（タングート）、吐谷渾(とよくこん)を攻め、同年12月、渤海(ぼっかい)国に出兵し、926年同国を滅ぼして東丹(とうたん)国と改名し、皇太子の倍(ばい)を東丹国王に任じて帰国する途中、同年7月死亡した。その後、阿保機の次男の徳光（堯骨(ぎょうこつ)）が即位し太宗となった。

　太宗は中国本土の経略に主力を注ぎ、華北の争乱に介入し、936年石敬瑭(せきけいとう)を助けて後唐(こうとう)を滅ぼし、後晋(こうしん)国を建てさせ、約により燕雲(えんうん)十六州を割譲させた。このことにより契丹は中国の農耕民を直接支配することになり、これを契機として契丹の文化、制度、政治などは変容し始めた。太宗は943年、後晋国に出兵したが敗北し、946年にも出兵し後晋国を滅ぼし、947年正月、汴(べん)州（開封）に入城し、同年2月、国号を大遼国とした。太宗は汴州にいて中国を支配しようとしたが、契丹人将兵が漢人の財物を略奪誅求(ちゅうきゅう)し、漢人の怨恨(えんこん)を招き民心を失い、中国統治に失敗した。太宗は同年4月、帰国の途中、陣中で没した。第3代世宗および第4代穆宗(ぼくそう)の時代には、一族の間に内乱が相次ぎ、国政は安定せず、穆宗は近侍に殺された。

　第5代景宗の時代には宋(そう)との関係が正常化し、両国間に平穏な関係が続いた。982年、景宗が没し第6代聖宗が12歳で即位した。聖宗は983年女真に出兵し985年定安国を征伐したが、宋ではこの虚に乗じ燕雲十六州の回復を目ざして出兵し敗北した。聖宗は1004年宋に出兵し、宋の真宗も澶(せん)州に親征したが、宋は遼に毎年絹20万匹、銀10万両を贈るなどの条件で両国間に和議が結ばれ（澶淵(せんえん)の盟）平和が回復された。澶淵の盟約後、宋は雄州などに榷(かく)場（交易場）を置き、遼も新城、易(えき)州、朔(さく)州に榷場を設け、宋と交易した。宋から遼へは茶、繒帛(そうはく)（絹織物）、香薬などが輸出され、遼から宋へは馬、羊、毛皮、珠玉などが輸出された。政府監督下の榷場交易のほかに密貿易も行われ、また澶淵の盟約後、毎年莫大(ばくだい)な歳幣が宋から遼に送られた。こうして遼では澶淵の盟約を転機として経済上、社会上目覚ましい発展を遂げ、聖宗、興宗、道宗3代100年間にわたり黄金時代を現出した。道宗の孫第9代天祚(てんそ)帝の時代から遼の国力は衰え、1114年以後女真族の金に攻められ、1125年天祚帝は女真に捕らえられ、遼は滅亡した。しかし遼の太祖8世の孫の耶律大石(やりつたいせき)は、一族とともに西方に逃れ、中央アジアの虎思斡耳朶(フスオルド)（ベラサグンともよばれ現在のトクマク付近）に本拠を置き、西遼(せいりょう)国を建てた。西遼国はカラ・キタイ（黒契丹）ともよばれる。

［河内良弘］

官制

遼の官制は時代とともに変遷があるが、太宗時代、華北に勢力が伸張するにつれ、契丹人や諸遊牧民の統治には従来からの固有の制度（北面制）が用いられ、漢人や渤海人、高麗(こうらい)人などの定着農耕民の統治には中国的な制度（南面制）が採用された。北面制の最高行政機関は北枢密院(すうみついん)で、契丹人の軍政・民政および農耕民の軍政を統領した。北枢密院の管下には北・南宰相府（部族行政）、北・南宣徽(せんき)院（造営）、大于越(うえつ)府、夷離畢(いりひつ)院（刑獄）、大林牙(だいりんが)院（文書）、敵烈麻都司(てきれつまとし)（儀式）などの役所があった。契丹の皇族あるいは準皇族として待遇された貴族は、帳族とよばれ、遙輦(ようれん)九帳、皇族帳、国舅(こくきゅう)帳、国舅別部の四大帳族があり、それぞれ部族を領有した。部族には大部族（五院部、六院部、乙室部、奚(けい)六部）と小部族（品部以下48部）があり、大部族を統轄する官庁として北・南大王院、乙室大王府、奚王(けいおう)府があり、小部族には部族司徒府、部族節度使司、部族詳穏(しょうおん)司が置かれた。南面制の最高行政機関は南枢密院で、唐の制度に倣った三省六部の役所が置かれ、農耕民の民政を統領した。農耕定着民に対する地方行政機関としては中国のそれとまったく同じ州県制が施行された。契丹は中国への出兵の際略奪した農耕民を集団的に領内に移し、農民の原住地の名をとって何州、何県と名づけた。これらの州県は頭下州あるいは頭下軍とよばれた。また皇帝直轄の州県を斡魯朶(オルド)（宮衛）の州県、皇帝の陵墓に奉仕する州県を奉陵邑(ほうりょうゆう)とよんだ。

［河内良弘］

社会・文化

遼代の契丹はすべて耶律(やりつ)（移剌(いら)）と審密(しんみつ)（石抹(せきまつ)、蕭(しょう)）の2姓に分かたれていた。耶律姓と審密姓とは族外婚の単位（フラトリー）であり、耶律は馬をトーテムとし、審密（石抹、蕭）は牛をトーテムとする血縁集団で、かつ相互に族外婚の単位をなしていた。契丹の民族固有の信仰はシャーマニズムで、氏族的儀礼や人々の疾病の際に果たすシャーマンの役割は大きかった。しかし建国後は仏教や道教も取り入れられ、中国僧が招かれ、各地に仏寺や仏塔が建てられた。仏教関係の建築物では塼築(せんちく)の仏塔が代表的で、遼寧省義県の嘉福寺の多角多簷(たえん)塔、巴林左旗の林東市の南塔、巴林左旗の白塔子の白塔が有名である。木造建築では山西(さんせい／シャンシー)省応県の仏宮寺の木塔のほか、仏教関係の建物が多く遺存している。契丹はまた民族的自覚の高揚に伴い、契丹文字といわれる独自の文字を創製した。これは西夏、女真などに影響を及ぼし、各民族が独自の文字を創製する先駆けとなった。契丹は美術、工芸の面でも格調の高い文物を後世に伝えている。絵画では慶陵(けいりょう)の壁画にみられる山水画、人物画は、唐代の手法によりつつも契丹地方の風景を画題とした優れた作品であり、陶磁器では長壺、提袋壺、遼三彩、白磁など、独得の趣向を備えた逸品が多い。

［河内良弘］

『田村実造著『中国征服王朝の研究』（上　1964・東洋史研究会、下　1985・同朋舎出版）』▽『島田正郎著『遼代社会史研究』（1952・三和書房）』▽『島田正郎著『遼制之研究』（1954・中沢印刷）』

[参照項目] | カラ・キタイ | 契丹 | 契丹文字 | 慶陵

遼（耶律氏）／略系図

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