Min

Japanese: 明 - みん

A Han dynasty (1368-1644) that unified the entire country with its base in Jiangnan.

[Tsurumi Takahiro]

Politics

In the mid-14th century, rebellions broke out in various places against the oppression of the Yuan Dynasty, and among them, the Red Turbans, a sect of the White Lotus Sect, were dominant. Zhu Yuanzhang, a poor peasant, joined the Red Turbans and gradually rose to prominence. He expelled the White Lotus Sect, allied himself with the landlords, defeated the heroes Chen Youliang and Zhang Shicheng, and seized the granaries of the Yangtze River Delta. In 1368, he established his capital in Yingtian Prefecture (Nanjing), named his country Ming, and named the era Hongwu. This was the founder of the Ming Dynasty, and he is also called Emperor Hongwu after the era name. While Taizu pacified southern China, he also launched a northern expedition, occupied the Yuan capital Dadu (Beiping, Beijing), and drove the Yuan Dynasty north of Han. The remaining Yuan Dynasty, the Northern Yuan Dynasty, continued to wait for an opportunity to strike back, so the Ming occupied Liaodong, severing all ties between the Northern Yuan Dynasty and Goryeo, then pacified Qinghai and Yunnan to pressure the Northern Yuan Dynasty, sending troops to the area of Nomonhan to deal a major blow to them. The Ming Dynasty's capital was in Nanjing, which meant that the political and economic centers were in the same place, but the capital was far away from the northern border, which made defense difficult. Taizu appointed his sons as kings and gave them fiefs in various regions, making them hereditary, but he did not give them control of the land. However, he granted military power to the northern kings in preparation for invasions by foreign enemies, which led to their growing power, which became a concern in Taizu's later years.

After the death of Taizu, his grandson Emperor Hui (Jianwen) ascended to the throne at the age of 16. He tried to reduce the power of the various kings, which led to the rebellion of his uncle, the King of Yan. After four years of fighting, with the help of the eunuchs who were disliked by Taizu, the capital Nanjing fell, and Emperor Hui committed suicide (the Jingnan Incident). In 1402, the King of Yan, also known as Emperor Chengzu (Yongle Emperor), ascended to the throne. He used his experience to abolish the various kings or reduce their power, and for strategic reasons moved the capital to his own base, Beiping, renamed it Beijing, and made Nanjing a secondary capital. This separated the capital from Jiangnan, but he renovated the Grand Canal to send goods from Jiangnan to the capital and the northern border. Wary of the rise of political opposition, Emperor Chengzu established the Eastern Arsenal, a secret police force under the direct control of the emperor, and compiled the Yongle Encyclopedia to clear his name of usurpation, and launched large-scale foreign campaigns. Taking advantage of the civil war in Annam (Vietnam), he annexed it and ordered the Muslim eunuch Zheng He to launch a large-scale expedition to the South Seas. There were seven expeditions from the Yongle period to the Xuande period (1405-1433), reaching Java, India, Ceylon, and even the Arabian Peninsula and the east coast of Africa. As a result of the expeditions, knowledge of the South Seas and rare goods were brought to China, and tribute trade became more active. In the Mongolian Plateau, the Mongols were waiting for an opportunity to launch a counterattack after the Jingnan Rebellion, so Emperor Chengzu personally led five campaigns to the north of the desert. As a result, the Ming's authority extended from the depths of the Northeast to the lower reaches of the Heilongjiang River.

The fifth emperor, Xuande, inherited Chengzu's aggressive foreign policy, but later adopted a passive foreign policy, abandoning Vietnam and retreating the northern defense line to the Great Wall. However, he placed importance on domestic affairs, so finances were stable and peace continued for a while. Yingzong (Zhengtong Emperor), who succeeded him on the throne, favored the eunuch Wang Zhen, which led to the eunuch's tyranny and caused suffering for the people. In 1448, the Deng Mao Seven Rebellion broke out, and the anti-landlord struggle (anti-rent) by tenant farmers over rent intensified, furthering social unrest. After Esen Khan's unification of the Mongolian Plateau, the Oirats became powerful. The Ming opened a tea and horse market to seek peace, but no agreement was reached, and in 1449 the Oirats invaded. Yingzong, following the advice of Wang Zhen, who was seeking fame, recklessly led a personal campaign, which resulted in him being captured at Tumubao (the Tumu Incident), and the capital, Beijing, being in danger. Daizong (Emperor Jingtai), who immediately ascended to the throne, implemented a strong defense system with the help of Yu Qian's plan, and barely managed to prevent the capital from falling. The following year, 1450, Yingzong was sent back to the Ming, but came into conflict with his half-brother Daizong, and in 1457, taking advantage of Daizong's illness, he was restored to power (as Emperor Tianshun). After that, the Oirats also weakened due to internal conflicts, and the northern border was relatively stable. However, after this, the Ming's authority over the Mongolian Plateau was completely lost, and it became clear that the Ming was on the defensive. The Ming tried to strengthen their defenses by repairing the Great Wall and establishing nine border towns, but how to maintain a large number of troops became a financial problem.

At the end of the 15th century, politics were relatively stable during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong (Hongzhi), but his successor, Emperor Wuzong (Zhengde), indulged in pleasure and merriment and allowed the eunuch Liu Jin to act tyrannically, which led to civil wars beginning with the Liu Liu and Liu Qi rebellions in the early 16th century. When Emperor Shizong (Jiajing), the son of Wuzong's uncle, ascended to the throne, meaningless debates (great ceremonies) were repeated over the succession to the throne. Shizong gradually became estranged from politics and blindly believed in Taoism, which led to political turmoil and financial difficulties. In addition, Altan Khan had been invading from the north for about 30 years, and a peace agreement was finally reached by promising to reopen the horse market. At the same time, the southeastern coastal regions were plagued by the so-called Wa, or "Wako" (Japanese pirates) and anti-authority pirate rebellions. The Ming relaxed its maritime ban in 1567, and the damage caused by the Wa was finally halted. In 1517, the Portuguese arrived in China for the first time, and trade with the Portuguese and Spanish began, with large amounts of silver flowing in from Mexico and Japan.

The 14th emperor, Shenzong (Wanli Emperor), appointed Zhang Juzheng (1525-82) to investigate households and fields, reform the tax system, and restructure the government and finances in order to overcome the social crisis. However, after Zhang Juzheng's death, discipline quickly fell apart and politics fell into chaos due to the tyranny of the eunuchs. Furthermore, the rise of the Jurchen people was added to the so-called Three Great Wanli Campaigns against Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, resulting in huge military expenditures and financial difficulties. The Donglin Party, formed by some righteous bureaucrats, harshly criticized the political corruption of the Yantang, intensifying the conflict between Donglin and non-Donglin. In the first half of the 17th century, the eunuch Wei Zhongxian, who had the trust of Emperor Xizong (Tianqi Emperor), implemented a reign of terror and suppressed the Donglin Party. Politics was thrown into turmoil by successive court disputes, and class conflict intensified as social contradictions became more apparent, leading to anti-tax protests, civil uprisings (struggle among urban people, including city laborers), and slave uprisings (struggle among slaves who had fallen to slave status). The last emperor, Yizong (Chongzhen Emperor), condemned Wei Zhongxian and others and attempted to clean up discipline, but it was too late, and a major rebellion by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong broke out. In 1644, as soon as Li Zicheng's troops entered Beijing, Yizong committed suicide in the mountains behind the palace, and the Ming dynasty came to an end. After this, Ming retainers proclaimed themselves emperors one after another in central and southern China and resisted the Qing army that had defeated Li Zicheng's army, but finally King Yongming was captured in Burma in 1661. This dynasty is also known as the Southern Ming.

[Tsurumi Takahiro]

Government

Emperor Taizu unified the country by utilizing the ethnic consciousness of the Han people, and on the pretext of reforming the systems of other ethnic groups and restoring the ideals of the ancient times, he worked to strengthen the imperial dictatorship. At the center, he took the Hu Weiyong incident in 1380 as an opportunity to abolish the Zhongshu Sheng, an administrative body modeled on the Yuan system, and made the six departments that belonged to it independent. In the military, the Grand Commandery, which was the system of military orders, was divided into the Five Military Commanderies: Central, Left, Right, Front, and Rear. In the inspection body, the Censor's Office was abolished and the Chief Inspectorate Office was established, and the country was divided into 13 provinces and officials such as the Chief Inspector and the Chief Inspector were appointed. Even in the provinces, he abolished the Xingzhongsecession, which had followed the Yuan system, and established the Seongseonbu Zhenshisi, which was in charge of general civil affairs, the Duzhongshisi, a military organ, and the Tiexing Ansatsushisi, an inspection organ, granting equal authority to the three organs (Sansisi). In this way, Taejo tried to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a few bureaucrats as much as possible and establish a system of direct imperial rule. As a result, the emperor's government affairs became so enormous that it was impossible for him to handle them alone. For this reason, he appointed the Dengakaku Daishi as his assistants, but during the reign of Seongjo, the Cabinet was established and the Dengakaku Daishi came to be known as Naekaken Daishi. Initially, the Naekaken Daishi's official rank was low, but as the Cabinet's authority grew, they gained authority as prime ministers.

On the other hand, there was no relationship of hierarchical power among the three Si, which caused inconvenience in times of emergency. For this reason, temporary governors and governors (junbu) were placed above the three Si, but later they became permanent offices. The administrative divisions of the regions were made up of 2 Zhili and 13 Bu Zheng Shisi, and the areas under the jurisdiction of the Bu Zheng Shisi were also called provinces, with prefectures, prefectures, and counties placed under the provinces. Nine border towns were established in strategic locations in the north to guard the border, while tusi and tuguan were placed in areas inhabited by ethnic minorities in the southwest, such as Guangxi and Yunnan. In the military system, new Wei offices were established throughout the country. One Wei consisted of 500 to 600 military households, and a military farm (tonden) was established in Wei and placed under the Du Command Shisi. In terms of the Ritsuryo Code, the Tang Code and Tang Ling Code, which were used as models, no longer suited the actual situation, so major reforms were made, and the Ming Code was completed in 1397. The Ming Ling fell into disuse, but the Ming Huidian was later published, compiling various laws and regulations from the early Ming period.

[Tsurumi Takahiro]

Society and Economy

The ruling class in Ming society consisted of the imperial family and bureaucrats, centered around the emperor, as well as landlords and merchants connected to them, while the ruled classes included the common people and the common people. The common people were classified into military, civilian, artisan, stove (salt production), etc., based on their occupation, and, except for the Min households, they were engaged in specialized forced labor. All of these households were organized into Lijia, and the village head was in charge of the Lijia, and prepared the Fueki Kosatsu (Yellow Labor Book) every ten years, but sometimes also surveyed the land and compiled the Gyorin Tusatsu (land register). Taxes were collected in the form of summer tax and autumn grain under the two tax laws, but in addition to the Lijia Zhengyaku (Li Jia Regular Labor) being imposed as forced labor, the Min households were assigned miscellaneous labor.

In the early Ming Dynasty, Emperor Taizu temporarily restricted landownership and adopted the policy of promoting the cultivation of land by farmers, in an attempt to protect and develop independent farmers. As a result, the number of independent farmers increased slightly, but the large landownership system that had existed since the Yuan Dynasty continued to prevail in the advanced areas of central and southern China, including the Jiangnan Delta region. There were official fields and private fields, and official fields were taxed higher than private fields. In official fields, the state was the landowner, and the actual landowners and independent farmers were regarded as tenant farmers and called official tenant households, and the system sought to secure landownership and high rents for the state. In the early Ming Dynasty, the vast official fields were established in the Jiangnan Delta region in order to make the official fields the economic foundation for the existence of the dynasty, and this was possible because the landownership relationship in this area was based on landowners and tenant households, and this was already established as a social convention.

The monetary economy from the Song dynasty onwards weakened temporarily due to the conflicts at the end of the Yuan dynasty, but the state and bureaucrats had a strong desire for currency, and taxes, which were based on payment in kind and labor at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, were allowed to be paid in silver from the 15th century onwards, and in the 16th century the Single Whip Law was implemented. The top-down seizure of silver through taxation encouraged many industrial sectors to produce goods, but regional division of labor was also established, and a national distribution system was established by customer merchants such as merchants from Xin'an (Huizhou) and Shanxi who grew in power through the salt monopoly. In agriculture, rice in Jiangnan and Huguang, cotton in Songjiang Prefecture in North China, sericulture around Lake Tai, tea in Sichuan, Huguang, Jiangxi and Fujian, sugar cane in Fujian and Jiangxi, and indigo in Fujian and Jiangxi were cultivated as commercial crops.

In handicrafts, the development of private handicrafts, in addition to government-run ones, was remarkable, including ceramics in Jingdezhen and iron in Foshan, as well as clothing in Jiangnan. The cotton cloth industry in Songjiang, the raw silk and silk weaving industries in Suzhou, Huzhou, Jiaxing, and Yingtian, and the linen weaving industries in Zhenjiang and Changzhou spread to rural areas as well as cities. The main drivers of rural industries were small-scale self-cultivating farmers and tenant households. In response to the exploitation by the state and landlords, they worked hard at home industries with their whole families as a means of supplementing their household income. Farmers had to rapidly turn over their small funds and were forced to rely on landlords and commercial capital for funds, so they were increasingly cut off by commercial capital for each production process, making it difficult for them to accumulate profits on their own. The powerful people in Ming society were government officials who had passed the imperial examinations, but the majority of them were landlords, and some were also merchants. Government officials had the privilege of being exempt from forced labor (yumen), but in the Ming dynasty, the scope of this exemption was expanded to include not only active and retired government officials, but also those who had passed the preliminary examination of the imperial examinations. Furthermore, from the mid-Ming period onwards, even some of the Lijia regular labor was subject to yumen, so the difference in burden between privileged landlords who received yumen and Lijia members, including other landlords, further increased. On the other hand, in the late Ming period, tenement households became more independent, and the ability of local landlords to collect rent was restricted through anti-tax measures, making it difficult for local landlords who did not have yumen privileges to maintain their landholding. They tried to prevent their decline by donating their land to privileged landlords to avoid forced labor, or by operating intensively by hand using slaves and hired laborers. In response to this, landlords with yumen privileges expanded their landholdings and grew to become the ruling power in towns and villages, replacing local landlords under the Lijia system. These privileged landlords were called 'kyoshin' (gentry) in the late Ming Dynasty, and formed a new social class. Under the rule of 'kyoshin', the class conflict between 'kyoshin' landlords and the landlord class became increasingly sharp. Anti-tax movements, which occurred frequently in various places from the 16th century onwards, became a struggle that spread to landlords in general, overlapping with the slave and civil uprisings, and developed into a collective everyday struggle from the mid-18th century onwards.

[Tsurumi Takahiro]

culture

In terms of thought, Taizu established Neo-Confucianism as the orthodox school of Confucianism. Chengzu also inherited this, and compiled Neo-Confucianism into the "Complete Four Books," "Complete Five Classics," and "Complete Nature and Principles," which were required reading for those taking the imperial examinations. In the early Ming Dynasty, thought control was strict and scholars were often suppressed, causing a long period of stagnation in the intellectual world. Wang Shouren (Yangming), who lived towards the end of the mid-Ming Dynasty, developed the theory of Lu Jiuyuan (Xiangshan), who established a separate school from Neo-Confucianism, and advocated the unity of knowledge and action, which advocates the unity of knowledge (recognition) and action (practice), establishing the so-called Yangming school. This theory, which valued practice and was simple and straightforward, became the mainstream of intellectual circles in the late Ming Dynasty and had a great influence on Japan's Edo period. The anti-eunuch Donglin Party, which revived the Donglin Academy of the Song Dynasty, was a descendant of Neo-Confucianism and placed importance on the political nature of learning. Under their influence, the Fusha advocated the revival of ancient learning. They placed importance on the investigation of truth based on evidence and on learning for practical use in governance. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Adam Schaal introduced new knowledge of European thought, calendar science, astronomy, geography, mathematics, and artillery. They imparted Western-style knowledge and technology as a means of spreading their faith, but their efforts were not successful. However, at the end of the Ming Dynasty, the new Western culture also stimulated the publication of technical books for practical use in governance. Examples include Xu Guangqi's Geometry Original and Agricultural Administration Encyclopedia, Zhao Zizhen's List of Divine Artifacts, Li Shizhen's Master Book of Materia Medica, and Song Yingxing's Heavenly Creations. The world map published by Ricci, Kunyu World Comprehensive Map, also had a major influence on the Chinese view of the world.

In terms of religion, Buddhism was generally in a slump, but at the end of the Ming Dynasty, there was a movement for religious reform, which led to the fusion of various Buddhist sects and a growing tendency to unify Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Taoism flourished with the Quanzhen sect, as well as the Zhengyi sect and the Jintan sect, which gained strong support among the common people and even edited the Taoist texts, but King Sejong's fanatical protection of Taoism actually led to its corruption.

In the literary field, popular literature such as popular novels and plays was added to by many people over the years and reached its peak around the 16th century. In novels, the four great long novels "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," "Water Margin," "Journey to the West," and "Jin Ping Mei" are famous. In drama, the Northern Qu (miscellaneous opera) that had existed since the end of the Yuan Dynasty declined, and the Southern Qu (legendary drama) became popular. One section of Tang Xianzu's masterpiece "The Four Dreams of the Gyokuming Hall," known as "Return of the Soul," from the end of the Ming Dynasty, is particularly famous. In painting, there are the Northern School, which follows the tradition of Yuan-style painting from the Northern Song Dynasty, and the Southern School, which is based on literati painting. The former tended to fall into formalism, but famous artists included Tang Yin (Bohu), Qiu Ying (Shifu), who painted unique genre paintings, and Xu Wei, who opened up a unique realm in bird-and-flower painting. The latter maintained a healthy state of simple expressionism in landscape painting, with Shen Zhou (Shitian) and his disciple Wen Zhengming (Hengshan) playing pioneering roles, and the style was established by the literati bureaucrat Dong Qichang at the end of the Ming Dynasty. In terms of crafts, the development of ceramics was remarkable, and the elegant blue and white porcelain seen during the Xuande period and red porcelain from the Jiajing and Wanli periods were highly valued not only in Japan but also overseas.

[Tsurumi Takahiro]

"Iwanami Lectures on World History 12" by Tsurumi Naohiro et al. (1971, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Chinese History 6: Yuan and Ming" by Atago Matsuo and Terada Takanobu (1974, Kodansha)" ▽ "Visual Edition of World History 11: The Transformation of East Asia" by Koyama Masaaki (1985, Kodansha)

[References] | Chinese History [Chronology] | Ming Dynasty (Chronology)

Ming Dynasty (Zhu family) / Brief family tree
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Ming Dynasty (Zhu family) / Brief family tree

Major Cities and Jiubian Towns of the Ming Dynasty
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Major Cities and Jiubian Towns of the Ming Dynasty

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国の江南を根拠地として、全国を統一した漢人王朝（1368～1644）。

［鶴見尚弘］

政治

14世紀中ごろ、元(げん)の圧政に対抗して各地で反乱が起こったが、なかでも白蓮(びゃくれん)教の一派である紅巾(こうきん)軍が優勢であった。貧農出身の朱元璋(しゅげんしょう)は紅巾軍に加わり、しだいに頭角を現した。彼は白蓮教を排して地主勢力と結び付き、群雄陳友諒(ちんゆうりょう)や張士誠を滅ぼし、揚子江(ようすこう)デルタ地帯の穀倉を押さえた。1368年、都を応天府（南京(ナンキン)）に定め、国号を明、年号を洪武(こうぶ)と称した。これが明の太祖であり、年号を冠して洪武帝ともよばれる。太祖は華南を平定する一方、北伐を行い、元の都大都（北平＝北京(ペキン)）を占領し、元を漢北に追いやった。元の残存勢力北元は、その後も反攻の機をうかがったので、明は遼東(りょうとう)を占領して北元と高麗(こうらい)との交渉を絶ち、ついで青海、雲南を平らげて北元を圧迫し、ノモンハン付近に軍を送ってこれに大打撃を与えた。明は南京に都を置いたから、政治と経済との中心は一致したが、都と北辺とが遠く離れることとなり、その防衛に苦慮した。太祖は諸子を王として各地に分封し世襲としたが、その地の支配権は与えなかった。ただ、北辺の諸王には外敵の侵入に備えて兵権を付与したから強大化を招き、太祖晩年の悩みとなった。

　太祖の没後、孫の恵（建文）帝が16歳で即位した。彼は諸王の勢力を削減しようとしたため、叔父燕王(えんおう)の背反にあった。4年間の戦いののち、太祖に疎んじられた宦官(かんがん)の内応もあって都の南京は陥り、恵帝は自殺した（靖難(せいなん)の変）。1402年燕王すなわち成祖（永楽帝）が帝位についた。彼は自らの経験を生かして諸王を廃したり、彼らの勢力を削り、戦略上の必要から自己の本拠地である北平に遷都して北京と改め、南京を陪都とした。このため都と江南とが隔たることとなったが、大運河を改修して江南の物資を都や北辺に送った。成祖は政治的反対勢力の台頭を警戒して、皇帝直属の秘密警察である東廠(とうしょう)を設け、また簒奪(さんだつ)の汚名をそらすために『永楽大典』を編纂(へんさん)したり、大規模な外征を行った。安南（ベトナム）では内乱に乗じてこれを併合し、イスラム教徒の宦官鄭和(ていわ)に南海大遠征を命じた。遠征は永楽から宣徳年間まで7回に及び（1405～33）、ジャワ島、インド、セイロン島から一部はアラビア半島、アフリカ東岸にまで達した。遠征の結果、南海方面の知識や珍奇な品物が中国にもたらされるとともに、朝貢貿易は一段と活発になった。モンゴル高原では、靖難の変に乗じてモンゴル人が反攻の機をうかがっていたので、成祖は5回にわたって漠北に親征を行った。このため明の威令は東北奥地から黒竜江下流域にまで及んだ。

　第5代皇帝宣宗（宣徳帝）は成祖の対外積極策を受け継いだが、中途より対外消極策に転じ、ベトナムを放棄し、北辺の防衛線を長城線にまで後退させた。しかしながら内政を重視したので、財政は安定し平和がしばらく続いた。ついで即位した英宗（正統帝）は、宦官王振を寵信(ちょうしん)したため、宦官の横暴を招き人民を苦しめた。1448年には、鄧茂七(とうもしち)の乱が起こり、小作料をめぐる佃戸(でんこ)の反地主闘争（抗租）が激化して社会不安を助長した。モンゴル高原ではエセン・ハンの統一後、オイラート部が強大となった。明は茶・馬市を開いて和平を求めたがまとまらず、1449年にはオイラート部の侵入を受けた。英宗は功名をねらう王振の議に従って不用意に親征を行った結果、土木堡(どぼくほ)において捕虜となり（土木の変）、都の北京は危機に陥った。ただちに即位した代宗（景泰帝）は、于謙(うけん)の策をいれて固い防衛体制を敷いたので、かろうじて都の陥落を免れた。翌1450年英宗は明へ送還されたが異母弟代宗と対立、1457年には代宗の病に乗じて復辟(ふくへき)（天順帝）した。その後オイラート部も内紛によって衰え、北辺はやや小康を保った。しかしながら、これ以後、明のモンゴル高原に対する威令はまったく失われ、明の守勢は明らかとなった。明は万里の長城を修築し、九辺鎮を設けて防衛体制を強化しようとしたが、大量の軍隊をいかにして維持するかが財政上の難問となった。

　15世紀末、孝宗（弘治帝）のころは政治も比較的安定したが、ついで帝位についた武宗（正徳帝）は逸楽にふけり、宦官劉瑾(りゅうきん)の専横を許したため、16世紀初頭には劉六(りゅうろく)・劉七の乱をはじめ内乱が続いた。武宗の叔父(おじ)の子世宗（嘉靖(かせい)帝）が帝位につくと、皇位の継承をめぐって無意味な論議（大礼の儀）が繰り返された。世宗はしだいに政治を疎んじ道教を盲信したため、政治が乱れ財政は逼迫(ひっぱく)した。そのうえ、北方からは約30年間にわたってアルタン・ハンの侵入を受け、馬市を再開することを約して、ようやく和議が成立した。同じころ東南沿海地方では倭寇(わこう)や反権力的な海寇反乱が横行し、いわゆる北虜南倭(ほくりょなんわ)に苦しんだ。明は、1567年に海禁令を緩めたため、ようやく南倭の害も治まった。1517年ポルトガル人が初めて中国に来航し、ポルトガル・スペイン人との貿易が開始され、大量の銀がメキシコや日本から流入した。

　第14代皇帝神宗（万暦(ばんれき)帝）は張居正（1525―82）を起用し、社会的危機を乗り切るために、戸口・田土を調査し、税制を改革して政治・財政の立て直しを図った。しかしながら張居正の死後、綱紀はたちまちにして乱れ、宦官の専横もあって政治は混乱した。そのうえ、豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉の朝鮮侵略などに対するいわゆる万暦の三大征に女直(じょちょく)（女真）の興起も加わったため、多額の軍事費を費やし、財政は窮乏した。一部の正義派官僚によって結成された東林党は、閹党(えんとう)の政治的腐敗を激しく批判したため、東林・非東林の対立が激化した。17世紀前半、熹宗(きそう)（天啓帝）の信任を得た宦官魏忠賢(ぎちゅうけん)は、恐怖政治を断行して東林党を弾圧した。相次ぐ廷争に政治は乱れ、加えて社会矛盾の顕在化に伴う階級対立の激化によって、各地で抗租や民変（都市で働く傭工(ようこう)をはじめとする都市民衆の闘争）、奴変(ぬへん)（奴隷身分に転落した奴隷たちの闘争）などが起こった。最後の皇帝毅宗(きそう)（崇禎(すうてい)帝）は、魏忠賢らを断罪して綱紀の粛正を図ったが、すでに遅く、李(り)自成や張献忠の大乱が起こった。1644年李自成の軍が北京に入城するや、毅宗は宮殿の裏山で自殺し、明は滅亡した。このあと明の遺臣が華中・華南で次々に帝を称し、李自成軍を破った清(しん)軍に抵抗したが、ついに1661年永明王がビルマで捕らえられた。これを南明ともいう。

［鶴見尚弘］

官制

漢民族の民族意識を利用して全国を統一した太祖は、異民族の制度を改め、上代の理想に復すと称して、皇帝独裁制の強化に努めた。中央では、1380年の胡惟庸(こいよう)の事件を機に、元(げん)制に倣った行政機関中書省を廃止し、その所属の機関六部(りくぶ)を独立させた。軍事機関では、軍令系統にあたる大都督府を中・左・右・前・後の五軍都督府に分轄し、監察機関では、御史台(ぎょしだい)を廃して都察院を設け、全国を13道に分けて監察都御史や監察御史らの官を置いた。地方でも、元制を踏襲した行中書省を廃止し、一般民政をつかさどる承宣布政使司、軍事機関である都指揮使司、監察機関である提刑按察(あんさつ)使司を設置して、3機関（三司）に対等の権限を与えた。このように太祖は、一部の官僚に権限が集中することを極力排除し、皇帝親政の制度を確立しようとした。この結果、皇帝の政務は膨大なものとなり、皇帝1人で処理することはとうてい不可能となった。このため、殿閣大学士を補佐役としたが、成祖のときには内閣(ないかく)が設けられ、殿閣大学士らは内閣大学士とよばれるようになった。当初、内閣大学士の官位は低かったが、内閣の権限が強まるとともに宰相としての権限をもつようになった。

　一方、三司の間に統属関係がなかったので、有事の際に不便を生じた。このため3司の上に臨時に総督・巡撫(じゅんぶ)が置かれたが、のち常設の官となった。地方の行政区画は2直隷・13布政使司からなっていたが、布政使司の管轄区域は省ともよばれ、省の下に府・州・県が置かれた。北辺の要地には九辺鎮を設けて国境警備にあたったが、南西地方の広西・雲南などの少数民族居住地域には土司・土官を置いた。兵制では、新たに全国に衛所が設けられた。1衛は軍戸500、600戸からなり、衛には屯田(とんでん)が設けられ、都指揮使司の下に置かれた。律令では、模範とされた唐律・唐令が実情にあわなくなったため大改革が加えられ、1397年に明律が完成した。明令はすたれたが、のちに明初以来の諸法令を集大成した明会典が公布された。

［鶴見尚弘］

社会・経済

明代社会の支配者階級には、皇帝を中心とする皇族や官僚ならびにこれに連なる地主・商人がおり、被支配者階級として、それらを除いた良民や賤民(せんみん)があった。良民は職業によって軍・民・匠・竈(そう)（製塩）などの戸籍に分類され、民戸を除いて戸籍上の専門的な徭役(ようえき)に従事した。これらの戸はすべて里甲に編成され、里長は里甲を統率し、10年ごとに賦役黄冊(ふえきこうさつ)を整備したが、土地丈量を行って魚鱗(ぎょりん)図冊（土地台帳）を作成することもあった。租税は、両税法により夏税・秋糧が徴収されたが、徭役として里甲正役が課せられたほか、民戸には雑役が割り当てられた。

　太祖は、明初一時的に地主の土地所有を制限し、徙民(しみん)・開墾政策を採用して自作農を保護・育成しようとした。この結果、自作農はやや増大したが、先進地帯である江南デルタ地帯をはじめとする華中・華南では、元代以来の大土地所有制が引き続き展開した。田土には官田と民田とがあり、官田は民田に比して税額が高かった。官田とは国家が地主となり、実際上の地主・自作農を小作人とみなしてこれを官佃戸(かんでんこ)とよび、国家が土地所有権と高額の小作料とを確保しようとする制度であった。明初、江南デルタ地帯に広大な官田が設置されたのは、官田を王朝存立のための経済的基礎とするためであり、それが可能となったのは、この地の土地所有関係が地主と佃戸とを基本とするものであり、それが社会的通念としてもすでに定着していたからであった。

　宋(そう)代以降の貨幣経済は、元末の争乱によって一時衰えたが、国家や官僚の貨幣に対する欲求は強く、明初現物納や力役(りきえき)を原則とした税役も15世紀以降銀納化が認められ、16世紀には一条鞭法(いちじょうべんぽう)が施行された。徴税による上からの銀収奪は、多くの産業部門に商品生産化を促したが、地域間分業も成立し、塩の専売で力を伸ばした新安（徽州(きしゅう)）・山西商人などの客商によって全国的な流通機構が整備された。農業では、江南・湖広の米、華北・松江府の綿花、太湖周辺の養蚕、四川(しせん)・湖広・江西・福建の茶、福建・江西の甘蔗(かんしょ)、福建・江西の藍(あい)などが商品作物として栽培された。

　手工業では、官営のほか民間手工業の発展が目覚ましく、景徳鎮(けいとくちん)の陶磁器、仏山鎮の鉄などのほか、特筆すべきは江南の衣料であった。松江府の綿布業、蘇(そ)州・湖州・嘉興(かこう)・応天府の生糸・絹織物業、鎮江・常州府の麻織物業などは、都市はもちろんのこと農村にまで広がった。農村工業の主要な担い手は零細な自作農や佃戸であった。彼らは国家や地主の収奪に対抗して、家計補充の手段として家族をあげて家内工業に励んだ。農民は、零細な資金を急速に回転させねばならず、また資金を地主・商業資本に依存せざるをえなかったから、ますます各生産工程ごとに商業資本によって分断され、自ら利潤を蓄積することは困難であった。明代社会の有力者は科挙出身の官僚であったが、彼らの大多数は地主であり、商人を兼ねるものもあった。官僚には徭役免除（優免）の特権があったが、明代にはその範囲は現役・退職の官僚のほか、科挙の予備試験合格者にまで拡大された。そのうえ、明中期以降には里甲正役の一部まで優免の対象とされたから、優免を受ける特権地主とそれ以外の地主を含む里甲成員との負担差は一段と増した。一方、明末には佃戸の自立化が高まり、抗租などを通じて在地地主の地代収取は制約されたから、優免特権をもたない在地地主が土地所有を維持することは困難であった。彼らは土地を特権地主に投献して徭役を忌避したり、奴僕・傭工労働による集約的な手作経営を行うことによって没落を防ごうとした。これに対して優免特権を有する地主は、土地所有を拡大し、里甲制下の在地地主にかわって郷村の支配権力に成長した。これらの特権地主は、明末には郷紳(きょうしん)とよばれ、新たな社会的身分層を形成した。郷紳支配のもと、郷紳地主と佃戸層との階級対立はますます先鋭化した。16世紀以降各地で頻発した抗租運動は、佃戸一般に広がりをもつ闘争となり、奴変・民変とも重なり合って、18世紀中葉以後は集団的な日常闘争へと発展した。

［鶴見尚弘］

文化

思想面では、太祖は朱子学を儒教の正統と定めた。成祖もこれを受け継ぎ、朱子学を集大成して『四書大全』『五経大全』『性理大全』を編纂(へんさん)し、科挙受験者の必読書とした。明初は思想統制が厳しく、しばしば学者を弾圧したため思想界は久しく沈滞した。明中期末ごろの人、王守仁（陽明）は、朱子学とは別派をたてた陸九淵(りくきゅうえん)（象山）の説を発展させ、知（認識）と行（実践）の統一を説く知行合一説を唱えて、いわゆる陽明学を成立させた。この説は、実践を重んじかつ簡明・率直であったから、明代後期思想界の主流となり、わが国の江戸時代にも大きな影響を与えた。宋代の東林書院を再興した反宦官派の東林党は、朱子学の流れをくむものであり、学問の政治性を重視した。この影響のもとに古学の復興を唱えたのが復社である。彼らは実証に基づく真実の究明と経世実用のための学問を重視した。明末にマテオ・リッチ、アダム・シャールらのイエズス会宣教師によってヨーロッパの思想や暦学・天文・地理・数学・砲術などの新知識が紹介された。彼らは布教の手段として西洋風の知識や技術を伝授したが、布教の成果はあがらなかった。しかしながら、明末には新たな西洋文化の刺激も加わり、経世実用のための技術書が盛んに刊行された。徐光啓の『幾何原本』『農政全書』、趙子禎(ちょうしてい)の『神器譜』、李(り)時珍の『本草綱目(ほんぞうこうもく)』、宋応星の『天工開物』らはその例であり、リッチが公刊した世界地図『坤輿(こんよ)万国全図』も中国人の世界観に大きな影響を与えた。

　宗教面では、仏教は概して低調であったが、明末には教界刷新の機運が生じて仏教各派の融合が進み、儒・仏・道三教一致の傾向が強まった。道教は全真教とともに正一教や金丹(きんたん)道派が盛んとなり、庶民の間に根強い支持を得、道蔵の編集も行われたが、世宗の狂信的な道教保護はかえって道教を腐敗堕落させた。

　文芸面では、庶民的な小説や戯曲などの通俗文学が、長年月多くの人々の筆を加えられ、16世紀ころに大成した。小説では、『三国志演義』『水滸伝(すいこでん)』『西遊記』『金瓶梅(きんぺいばい)』などの四大長編小説が有名である。戯曲では、元末以来の北曲（雑劇）は衰えて南曲（伝奇）が盛んとなった。明末、湯顕祖(とうけんそ)の傑作『玉茗堂四夢』は、一節が「還魂記」の名で知られ、とくに有名である。絵画では、北宋以来の院体画の流れをくむ北画と文人画系の南画の流れとがある。前者は、とかく形式主義に陥りがちであったが、唐寅(とういん)（伯虎(はくこ)）や独特の風俗画を描いた仇英(きゅうえい)（実甫(じつほ)）、花鳥画に独自の境地を開いた徐渭(じょい)らが有名である。後者は、山水を描く素朴な表現主義が健康さを保ち、沈周（石田）と弟子文徴明(ぶんちょうめい)（衡山(こうざん)）が先駆的役割を果たし、明末の文人官僚董其昌(とうきしょう)によって様式的にも確立された。工芸面では、陶磁器の発達が目覚ましく、宣徳年間にみられる瀟洒(しょうしゃ)な染付(そめつけ)、嘉靖・万暦年間の赤絵などは、国内はもちろんのこと、海外でも大いに珍重された。

［鶴見尚弘］

『鶴見尚弘他著『岩波講座　世界歴史12』（1971・岩波書店）』▽『愛宕松男・寺田隆信著『中国の歴史6　元・明』（1974・講談社）』▽『小山正明著『ビジュアル版世界の歴史11　東アジアの変貌』（1985・講談社）』

[参照項目] | 中国史[年表] | 明の時代（年表）

明（朱氏）／略系図

明の主要都市と九辺鎮

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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