Esoteric Buddhist Art

Japanese: 密教美術 - みっきょうびじゅつ

It refers to paintings and sculptures that express the doctrines of Esoteric Buddhism, a sect of Buddhism, and in particular to the plastic arts that were produced in general with the development of Esoteric Buddhism after Kukai in the early Heian period (9th century). Until then, Buddhism was Mahayana Buddhism centered on Shaka Nyorai (Shakanyorai), and was a so-called exoteric Buddhism that expressed the Pure Land worlds in which Amida, Yakushi, and Miroku live, that is, the sacred ideal world in the other shore. However, Esoteric Buddhism is based on the idea of Sokushin Jōbutsu, which says that one can reach the state of the Tathagata in this life. There were also Esoteric deities such as the Four Heavenly Kings, Bonten, Taishakuten, and Kannon during the Nara period, but these played the role of guardian deities of the Buddhist world, and the works of this period are called "Zōmitsu". In contrast, Esoteric Buddhism after Shingon and Tendai is called "Junmitsu".

Relics of esoteric Buddhism art can also be found in India, Nepal, and Java, and Tibet has unique Tibetan Buddhist (Lamaist) art, but whereas most of the works from the Tang Dynasty in China, when Esoteric art flourished, have been lost, Japan has an abundant collection of esoteric Buddhism. This is evidence that Esoteric Buddhism, and especially Esoteric Buddhism, has long maintained a leading position in the Buddhist world in Japan.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Characteristics of Esoteric Buddhist Art

The word "mitsu" in esoteric Buddhism means secret, and the rituals must be performed according to the prescribed rituals (ceremonies and rules). The rituals are not open to outsiders, are secret methods and rites, and contain elements of magic, and the world is expressed in mandala drawings. A platform is built, ritual implements are placed, and originally the principal image and other deities were painted on the ground according to the rituals, but in Japan, a scroll depicting the image of the Buddha in remembrance is hung. In this way, the images of the deities are essential to the esoteric Buddhist rituals, which promoted the development of plastic arts.

As a result, the variety of Buddhist statues increased. Theories based on the ideas of the Kegon and Yoga schools, and the systematization of various deities that are one with Dainichi Nyorai, were developed, and gods from religions other than Buddhism were actively incorporated. Buddhas with their own different personalities and powers responded to the public's faith in worldly benefits. Deities that had previously played supporting roles, such as bodhisattvas, Myo-o, and heavenly beings, began to play the leading roles in esoteric Buddhist art. The appearance of goddesses is also one of the characteristics of esoteric Buddhist art, and with the addition of Kichijoten and Benzaiten, who were originally Hindu goddesses, attempts were made to express voluptuous sensuality; this kind of realistic depiction of the body also extends to mixed esoteric Kannon statues, as can be seen in the Seated Nyoirin Kannon statue at Kanshinji Temple in Osaka (Kanshinji Temple).

Furthermore, statues with many faces and arms were created to answer the various wishes of the masses. These include the eleven-faced, thousand-armed, semi-formal, Acalanatha, and Nyoirin Kannon statues, the Fugen and Enmei Bodhisattvas, and the Peacock Myo-o statues. In contrast to the feminine Kannon statues, Myo-o statues are masculine and are depicted with wrathful expressions to defeat and refute evil and external enemies that plague all living beings, and are believed to be effective when people pray by chanting Dharani (Sanskrit spells). In addition to the Five Great Myo-o, wrathful statues include the Horse-Headed Kannon and the Vajrayana Boy.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Mandala

It is unique to esoteric Buddhist art, and represents the essence of things, the center, the universe, and the dojo, and is depicted as a symbol of a perfect world, and was hung as a hanging scroll inside the hall of a dojo. There are two types of mandalas: the Garbhakai, which represents the world of reason with Dainichi Nyorai at the center, and the Vajrakai, which represents the world of wisdom by combining circles and squares. These are called the Ryogai mandalas as a pair. Mandalas are sometimes disassembled and painted on the central pillar or Shiten pillars of a five-story pagoda, and examples can be seen in the first story of the five-story pagoda at Daigoji Temple in Kyoto, the Konjikido Hall of Chusonji Temple in Iwate Prefecture, and the Amida Hall of Hokkeji Temple in Kyoto. In addition to the Ryogai mandalas, separate deities mandalas based on specific deities or sutras are created depending on the nature of the ritual.

[Shinichi Nagai]

The development of esoteric Buddhist art

Kukai returned to Japan from China in 806 (Daido 1) and brought with him new esoteric Buddhism based on the Mahavairocana Sutra and the Vajrapani Sutra. At the same time, he also imported scriptures and rituals, and built Kongobu-ji Temple as a Shingon Buddhist training center at Mount Koya in Kishu (Wakayama Prefecture), and constructed Kyoogokoku-ji Temple (To-ji Temple) to protect Heian-kyo. Saicho, who returned to Japan before Kukai, founded the Tendai sect at Enryaku-ji Temple on Mount Hiei, but the esoteric influence of Tendai became more evident during the time of Ennin and Enchin after Saicho, and this characteristic is more evident in paintings than in sculptures. It is no exaggeration to say that the history of painting in the Heian and Kamakura periods is almost entirely dominated by paintings of Tendai esoteric Buddhism, but its origins lie in icons. The images are ink drawings on paper depicting the forms and detailed features of the various deities, incorporating new interpretations while still respecting the rituals, giving them a sense of movement. In particular, Acala, the central deity of the Five Great Wisdom Kings faith, influenced the Shingon sect as well, producing excellent works such as the Acala by Shinkai (Daigoji Temple). These images were passed down to temples in the Onjo-ji lineage, particularly in Tendai Esoteric Buddhism, and Toba Sojo Kakuyu pioneered a new field of religious painting. Meanwhile, Shingon Esoteric Buddhism placed importance on expressing doctrine, producing graceful mandala-like works with stable compositions, such as the Twelve Heavenly Kings statues formerly owned by Toji Temple (Kyoto National Museum).

The esoteric Buddhism of Shingon and Tendai spread to the great temples of Nara and further took deep root among the masses in the provinces due to their belief in worldly benefits. In this process, the work of the Shugenja (mountain ascetics) cannot be overlooked. They practiced in the mountains in connection with the mountain worship of the region, and spread the sacred images they worshiped among the masses, leaving behind machete-carved statues and stone Buddhas. Most machete carvings are done by leaving the flesh smooth and the clothing with machete marks, and the sculptures of Enku and Mokujiki Shonin belong to this lineage. The Mahavairocana Sutra stipulates that esoteric ajari should master painting and sculpting techniques and create their own statues and mandalas, and the machete-carved and stone-carved Buddhas can be seen as the result of putting these teachings into practice.

In addition, there is a multi-story tower called a Taho-to, which is a unique building of an esoteric Buddhist temple. This represents the Sammaya form of Dainichi Nyorai, and its shape is depicted in the Kongokai Mandala. Shingon Kanjo-do, Tendai Jogyo-do, and Hokke-do are also unique to esoteric Buddhism.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Esoteric Buddhist ritual implements

Many of the metal ritual implements used in esoteric Buddhism are highly valued as art and craft items. The esoteric ritual implements brought by Kukai and kept at Toji Temple are famous. Many of the shapes have been adapted from weapons and everyday items used in ancient India. The main ones include the vajra, vajra bell, vajra plate, konpei, karma, flower vase, incense burner, and goma altar.

[Shinichi Nagai]

"Japanese Art 33: Esoteric Buddhist Paintings" edited by Ishida Naotoyo (1969, Shibundo)" ▽ "Japanese Art 8: Esoteric Buddhist Architecture" by Ito Nobuo (1973, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Esoteric Buddhist Temples - Their History and Art" by Sawa Takaken (1974, Hozokan)" ▽ "Japanese Art 8: Esoteric Buddhist Art" by Sawa Takaken (1979, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Esoteric Buddhist Art Encyclopedia" edited by Sawa Takaken and Hamada Takashi, 4 volumes (1983-84, Asahi Shimbun)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

仏教の一派である密教の教理の表現としての絵画、彫刻、とくに平安前期（9世紀）の空海以後の密教の展開に伴って生み出された造形美術一般をさす。それまでの仏教は釈迦如来(しゃかにょらい)を中心とした大乗仏教で、阿弥陀(あみだ)、薬師、弥勒(みろく)の諸如来が住むそれぞれの浄土世界、つまり彼岸(ひがん)にある聖なる理想の世界を表現する、いわゆる顕教であったが、密教は現世において如来の境地に達しうるとする即身成仏の考え方にたっている。奈良時代にも四天王、梵天(ぼんてん)、帝釈(たいしゃく)天、観音(かんのん)など密教的な諸尊もあったが、これらは仏教世界の守護神としての役割をもち、この時代のものは「雑密(ぞうみつ)」という。これに対し真言(しんごん)・天台以後の密教を「純密」といっている。

　密教美術の遺品はインド、ネパール、ジャワにもみられ、チベットには特異なチベット仏教（ラマ教）美術があるが、純密系の美術が盛行した中国唐代の作品はほとんど失われたのに対し、日本には遺品が豊富に存在している。これは、密教、とくに純密系が長く日本の仏教界の主導的立場を維持してきたことの証左といえよう。

［永井信一］

密教美術の特徴

密教の密は秘密の意で、定められた儀軌（儀式と法規）に従って修法を行わなければならない。修法は他見を許さず、秘法秘儀とし、呪術(じゅじゅつ)的要素をもち、その世界は曼荼羅(まんだら)図で表現される。壇を築き、法具を配し、儀軌に従って本来は土に本尊以下の諸尊を描いたが、日本では念ずる仏の姿を描いた画幅が掲げられた。このように密教の修法が諸尊の図像を不可欠としたところから造形美術の発達を促した。

　これに伴い仏像の種類が増大した。華厳(けごん)や瑜伽行(ゆがぎょう)派などの思想に基づく理論づけと、大日(だいにち)如来に帰一する諸尊の体系化が進められ、仏教以外の宗教の神々も積極的に取り入れられ、それぞれに異なった性格や力をもつ仏(ほとけ)が、大衆の現世利益(げんぜりやく)的な信仰にこたえた。菩薩(ぼさつ)、明王(みょうおう)、天部など従来脇役(わきやく)にあった諸尊が密教美術の主役を務めるようになる。女神の出現も密教美術の特色の一つであり、元来ヒンドゥー教の女神であった吉祥(きちじょう)天と弁才天が加わって豊満な官能的表現が試みられ、こうした写実的な肉体表現は大阪・観心寺如意輪(にょいりん)観音坐像(ざぞう)（観心寺）にみられるように、雑密系の観音像にも及んでいる。

　さらに、大衆のさまざまな願いにこたえるために多面多臂(たひ)の像が生まれた。十一面・千手(せんじゅ)・准(じゅんてい)・不空羂索(ふくうけんじゃく)・如意輪の観音像、普賢(ふげん)・延命(えんめい)菩薩、孔雀(くじゃく)明王像などである。女性的な観音像に対し、明王像は男性的で、衆生の魔障や外敵を摧破折伏(さいはしゃくぶく)するため忿怒(ふんぬ)の形相で表現され、陀羅尼(だらに)（梵語の呪文）を唱えて祈るとき効験あらたかとされた。忿怒像には五大明王のほか馬頭(ばとう)観音、金剛(こんごう)童子などがある。

［永井信一］

曼荼羅

密教美術に特有なもので、ものの本質、中心、宇宙、道場を表し、完全無欠な世界の象徴として描かれ、掛幅として道場の堂内にかけられた。曼荼羅には、大日如来を中心に理の世界を表す胎蔵界と、円と方形を組み合わせて智の世界を表す金剛界の二系統があり、これを一対として両界(りょうがい)曼荼羅という。曼荼羅図は分解して五重塔内の中心柱や四天柱に描くことがあり、京都・醍醐(だいご)寺五重塔の初層、岩手県・中尊寺金色(こんじき)堂、京都・法界寺阿弥陀堂などにその例がみられる。両界曼荼羅のほかに、修法の性質によって特定の尊や経法に基づく別尊曼荼羅がつくられている。

［永井信一］

密教美術の展開

空海は806年（大同1）に唐より帰朝して『大日経』『金剛頂経』による新しい密教を請来(しょうらい)した。同時に経典や儀軌も輸入され、紀州（和歌山県）高野山(こうやさん)に真言宗道場として金剛峯(こんごうぶ)寺を建立し、平安京守護のために教王護国寺（東(とう)寺）を造建した。空海より先に帰朝した最澄(さいちょう)は比叡山延暦(ひえいざんえんりゃく)寺で天台宗を開いたが、天台の密教的色彩は最澄以後の円仁(えんにん)、円珍のころに顕著になり、その特色は彫像よりも絵画に著しい。平安・鎌倉期の絵画史は天台密教の仏画によってほとんど占められているといっても過言ではないが、その原点となったのは図像類である。図像は諸尊の形態や細部の特徴を紙本に墨書した白描画で、儀軌を踏まえながら新しい解釈をも盛り込み、動きのあるものになっている。とくに五大明王信仰の中心本尊としての不動明王は真言系にも影響を与え、信海筆の不動明王（醍醐寺）のような優れた作品を生んだ。こうした図像類は天台密教のうちでもとくに園城(おんじょう)寺系統の寺院に受け継がれ、鳥羽僧正覚猷(とばそうじょうかくゆう)は宗教的絵画の新しい分野を開拓した。一方、真言密教では教理の表現を重視し、東寺旧蔵の十二天像（京都国立博物館）のような安定した構図で、曼荼羅的な優美な作品をつくりだした。

　真言・天台の密教は南都（奈良）諸大寺に及び、さらにその現世利益的な信仰によって、地方の大衆のなかに深く根を下ろしていったが、その過程で見逃すことのできないのは修験者(しゅげんじゃ)たちの働きである。彼らはその土地の山岳信仰と結び付いて山中で修行し、信仰する尊像を大衆の間に広め、鉈(なた)彫り像や石仏を残している。大部分の鉈彫りは肉身部分は滑らかに仕上げ、衣服部分は鉈目(なため)を残すもので、円空や木食上人(もくじきしょうにん)の造像はこの系列にある。『大日経』には、密教の阿闍梨(あじゃり)たる者は絵画・彫刻の技術を身につけ、仏像や曼荼羅は自らつくるものと定められているが、鉈彫りや石彫りの仏像はこうした教えの実践の結果とみることができる。

　なお、密教寺院独特の建物に多宝(たほう)塔とよばれる重層の塔がある。これは大日如来の三昧耶(さんまや)形を表すもので、その形は金剛界曼荼羅に描かれている。真言の灌頂(かんじょう)堂、天台の常行(じょうぎょう)堂、法華(ほっけ)堂なども密教特有のものである。

［永井信一］

密教法具

密教の修法に使用する金属の法具には、美術工芸的な価値の高いものが多い。空海請来の東寺蔵の密教法具は有名である。その形は古代インドの武器や日用具から変化したものが多い。おもなものに金剛杵(しょ)、金剛鈴(れい)、金剛盤、金錍(こんぺい)、羯磨(かつま)、花瓶(けびょう)、火舎(かしゃ)（香炉）、護摩壇などがある。

［永井信一］

『石田尚豊編『日本の美術33　密教画』（1969・至文堂）』▽『伊藤延男著『日本の美術8　密教の建築』（1973・小学館）』▽『佐和隆研著『密教の寺――その歴史と美術』（1974・法蔵館）』▽『佐和隆研著『日本の美術8　密教の美術』（1979・平凡社）』▽『佐和隆研・浜田隆編『密教美術大観』全4巻（1983～84・朝日新聞社）』